*Diverse movements focusing on a broad range of issues, including antislavery, education, labor, temperance, women's rights, civil rights, gay rights, war, public health, and government.

Created by:  A. Westenberger, G. Borsky, and R. Lee

I.D.s and Vocabulary

Analysis/Commentary

Picture Captions

Chapter 25--"World War II"(Pages 874-908) 

Industry Reform

Roosevelt created the War Production Board (WPB) and appointed Donald Nelson, executive vice president of Sears to mobilize the nation’s resources for an all-out war effort The WPB offered business cost-plus contracts, guaranteeing a fixed and generous profit.

In order to get the cooperation of the businessmen many of whom the new deal policies had alienated, Roosevelt started to appoint many business executives in key positions. He also abandoned antitrust actions in industries that were related to the war effort.

Although many supporters felt that the new pro business policies were totally wrong, the policy for the most part worked. Industrial production profits and net corporation profits doubled during the war.

In the Agricultural field large commercial farm owners were making a profit off of the war.  During the war, the agricultural part of the country was being reformed by new mechanizations making it easier to grow commerce in large quantities to make money.  At the same time farm population was also declining by 17 percent as on large commercial farm owners were making a profit and the small family farms were becoming a thing of the past.

The Office Of Price Administration (OPA)

Headed by Charles Bowles, it set prices on thousands of items to control inflation.  Also, it rationed scarce products.   People found the OPA as being too oppressive since its decisions determined what people could buy.

The Revenue Act of 1942 raised taxes, broadened the tax base, increased cooperate taxes to 40 percent and raised the excess-profits tax to 90 percent.  The government also inducted a payroll deduction of income taxes.  Income tax was a reality for Americans for the first time in U.S. history.

Commentary:  The result of F.DR.s change in policy was relativeley successful and whether it was a massive buget spending that helped end the depression or the new war which helped cause a massive increase in employment for new jobs, the end was that America was back on track.

America still segregated

Much of society even in the north of the United States remained a segregated society.  African Americans did not not have the same freedoms that whites could enjoy in America. They couldn’t live, eat, travel, work or go to school without being prejudiced against because of their color.  They barely profited from the prosperity and revival of jobs at the beginning of the war and for those that entered the military they were given the worst jobs.  They often serving in segregated units with all blacks and high ranking white officers. 

To combat these prejudices from a supposed free country, Philip Rudolph who was respected and admired by black leaders of all political affiliations convinced many African American protesters to join him in a march on Washington to demand equal rights. “Dear fellow Negro Americans,” Rudolph wrote, “be not dismayed in these terrible times.  You possess power, great power.  Our problem is to harness and hitch it up for action on the broadest, daring and most gigantic scale.”

Roosevelt threatened by over 100,000 African Americans protesting in D.C. tried to talk to Rudolph in person on June 18, 1941.  Rudolph and Roosevelt struck a bargain. 

President Roosevelt issued order 8802 which stated that it was policy of the United States of America that “there shall be no discrimination of the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin.”  Also he established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the order.

Commentary:  While the order was a major stepping stone to end Racial prejudice it did nothing to eliminate it.  Blacks were still discriminated against because of their color. 

After WWI over 750,000 Blacks from the south tried to move north in order to escape from the prejudices of the south but found out they weren't welcome wherever they went.  In Detroit, 50,000 blacks tried to move into what was already a overcrowded city.  The tension between the racial groups finally broke and a riot began.  The riot left 25 blacks and 9 whites dead and destroyed more than 2 million dollars worth of property.

Women join the Workforce

• Women did their part in the factories as thousands took up jobs to build heavy industry such as tanks airplanes, and ships.
• By, 1943 most of the men were drafted and male unemployment virtually didn’t exist, so women took up jobs as sort of a patriotic duty
• A popular song was Rosie the Riveter, "who was making history working for victory."  She also helped her marine boyfriend by “working overtime on the riveting machine.”
• Rosie the Riveter became a famous icon of a strong yet intelligent woman
• By the end of the war, the labor force included 19.5 million women, but three-fourths of them had been working before the conflict
• Majority of the new women workers were married and weren’t single
• In 1944, women averaged $31.21 compared to $54.65 for men as weekly wages
• Women were often discriminated in the workplace with more menial tasks and sexist remarks by men

Commentary: By the end of the war it became apparent that women deserved as fair of a chance as men for jobs in the work place.  War work altered individual lives and attitudes, but it did not change dramatically either sex’s perception of women’s proper role in society.

Chapter 26---Reform(Pages912-943)

Red=Analysis

Blue is Vocabulary and I.D.s

Thriving Peace time economy- The period of time after World War II the United States has the most sustained period of prosperity the country has ever known.  The (GNP) or Gross National product jumped from just over $200 billion in 1945 to almost $300 billion in 1950 and by the 1960’s climbed above $500 billion.  Almost 60 percent of all families in the country were now part of the middle class.  Large corporations increasingly dominated the business world and unions grew as well so most workers improved their lives.  Increased Technology flooded the market and found their way into American homes.  The middle class group of Americans was growing.

Reform over transportation-Commercial Mass production was the new thing in the 1950’s.  With the restriction for the production of military vehicles only during World War II lifted, the Automobile Industry grew tremendously over the post war period. Two Million cars were built in 1955 and the number rose to over 9 million in 1965.  Customer could now choose from a wide variety of engines, colors, and optional accessories very different to how it used to be when Henry Ford stated, “You can have any color as long as it is black.” To describe the very few choices buyers could choose from.  In 1956 the Interstate Highway Act of 1956 provided over $26 billion, the largest public works expenditure in American history, to build over 40,000 miles of federal highways linking all parts of the United States.  For the first time, ever the country was connected and people could drive their automobiles across the country.  If you want to know more about the Automobile as a Cultural Phenomenon see Themes in US History - Culture.

The Automobile changed the way Americans went to and from places.  In a very true way the American Automobile became a cultural icon and changed the way transportation would done up until modern time.  It is important to remember that with the spotlight on the car as the American’s number one transportation vehicle that it also was the first time that America became dependent on foreign oil to fuel America’s hunger on commercial gas.  It would become a major concern in the 21^st century.

House Construction Reform-In 1940, 43 percent of all American families owned a house: by 1970 the figure had risen to 63 percent.  Much of the stimulation had come from the G.I. Bill of 1944.  It gave returning service men priority for many jobs and provided education benefits, and also offered low interest home mortgages.

Returning Veterans had life a little easier as they enjoyed the bonuses of a peaceful economy.  The G.I. Bill helped many servicemen transition easily back into normal society after a long brutal war.

The Union movement-By the end of World War II, the union movement had become even stronger.  14.5 million Which were the most union’s members than ever before. 10 million belonged to the American Federation of Labor (AFL):  the other 4.5 million belonged to the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).  Lay off of war workers after the war led to in 1946 a strike where 4.6 million workers refused to work. There were work stoppages in the automobile Industry, Coal Industry, steel, and Electricity Industries.  In the late 1940’s the situation improved for workers and Unions adapted an approach that was less confrontational. 

Gone was the period of time where Big business did not care about their workers.  Big businesses offed benefits and other bonuses to their workers as well as clean working environment.  This is due to Unions fighting for the rights of their members.  But in the growing fear of the Cold War unions will be looked at as being Anti American and Communists.

Technology Reform-A rapid advancement in technology occurred in the post war years.  Atomic energy was discovered during the war and a whole new powerful energy could be used for peace or for war terms.  The Government established the National Institute of Health in 1948 to coordinate medical research and the National Science Foundation in 1950 to fund basic scientific research.  Computers assisted the process of technological development.  Wartime advance resulted in large but workable calculators, which grew into machines that contained their own internal instructions and memories.

Computers became the symbol of the new age as this machine would lead to advance technology into the world today with the internet.  Communication would become easier and faster globally as places all around the world would become connected with a simple machine.  The increase in technology allowed for the first time the cure of various deadly diseases and people were living longer.  Technology would enter the American home for the first time.

Chapter 27

Red Analysis

Blue Vocabulary  

Protest over Nuclear Development

Many people protested an end to nuclear development because of the growing fear of the Cold War and Nuclear Holocaust. The people who criticized the government over the arms race argued that nuclear radiation was bad for the atmosphere.  The Democratic presidential candidate, Adlai Stevenson, explained, the “danger of poisoning the atmosphere and the demand for an end of nuclear tests.”  SANE- the National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy tried the use of propaganda in order to get the word out to the world to stop test nuclear weapons and dumping huge amounts of fallout into the atmosphere.  To farther the demands of the SANE for a safer world protester called on women all over the country to strike for peace and not work for a day.  50,000 women marched in 60 communities around the nation.  Slogans in the marches included,   “Let the Children Grow” and “End the Arms Race-not the Human Race.  Pressure from political groups suspended nuclear testing in the fall of 1958 and it lasted until the Soviets resumed testing in 1961.

Protest over Nuclear Development continued throughout the Cold War.  People across the world protested because of the growing fear of what could possibly be the end of the human race.  They used propaganda and strikes in order to get their word across about the fear of Nuclear Armageddon.  Fear of Nuclear Wars has not ended from the Cold War and has continued even to this day as fear over instability in the world.

Protest over Vietnam

Americans began questioning what America was really fighting for.  Students took action by taking place in anti-war rallies.  The first took place in March 1965 at the University of Michigan.  Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and other organizations radical activists campaigned against the draft.  Peace demonstrations were a tool in order to convert more people to their cause.  A famous saying, “Make love, not War,” was begun by students over the troubles in the world.  Women Strike for Peace was a antiwar organization. In 1967, 300,000 people marched into New York City and in Washington D.C. 100,000 tried to close down the Pentagon. People were horrified because for the first time television was able to show the American public the horrors of war.  Americans were outraged over the constant killings they saw everyday on T.V. and demanded action. When Nixon took President his plan was to continue the war but remove American forces slowly replacing with Vietnamese ones.  The American troop strength cropped from 543,000 to 39,000 and it won political support for Nixon at home but slowly the South

Vietnamese began to lose ground.  In mid-1970s Nixon decided to invade Cambodia to stop supplies being sent to the Viet Kong.  This turn of events sparked renewed campus demonstrations on college campuses.  At Kent State University in Ohio a tragic event happened where students were fired upon by Guardsmen.  Four students were dead and nine were wounded.  The other two were innocent bystanders that were killed.  Americans were outraged over the attack and equally disturbed at similar instances at Jackson State University in Mississippi but cared less attention to that one because of racism in white America.

Americans protested over American involvement in Vietnam because of horrible political decisions on the parts of American leaders.  For the first time ever American were witnesses to horrible killings on their Televisions.  People were outraged over what they saw and demanded action.  Peaceful protest however would lead to ironically violence throughout the country.  In the end Vietnam would be a controversial subject to all Americans.  In the end America lost the was Politically and Militarily.

Chapter 28

Political Reform

I.D.s

·         Lyndon B. Johnson- United States president from 1963-1969

·         Richard Nixon- U.S. president from 1969-1974

·         Hubert H. Humphery- Democratic presidential candidate in 1968

·         George C. Wallace- Third party presidential candidate in 1968

Vocabulary

·         Liberalism- Thesis in which government participates deeply in social, political, and economic matters, involves much change and innovation

·         Conservatism- Thesis in which government participates less in social, political, and economic matters, based off of classic ideas and attempts to stick to initial purposes of government

Since 1960, Democrats had ruled both the presidency and the houses on Congress. However, as America dug deeper and deeper into Vietnam, citizens wanted change. The liberal ways of the Democrats wasn’t working, and many felt that government shouldn’t have such a big role in social problems. The Democrats were also divided, the Vietnam war causing the party to fracture and create many different, weaker factions.

Between Democrats and Republicans, there wasn’t much middle ground. With the biggest debate, Vietnam, it was either get out or stay in for the long run, without much room in the middle. Going into the election of 1968, the Democrats knew that it was going to be a tough run. Johnson, then president, decided not to run for re-election, knowing the huge task before him. His vice president, Humphery, ran instead. The Republican candidate, Richard Nixon, knew that this was his chance, having run in 1960, because of the weak Democratic Party. The third party candidate, George C. Wallace, appealed to northern wage earners and southern whites, and placed a serious threat for Nixon despite the failure of the Democratic Party.

The Democratic convention of 1968 ended in massive riots, crushing any hopes that the Democrats could reunite and have a real chance. Nixon appealed to what he called the “silent majority,” or the group that was worried about Vietnam, campus disruptions, and city-wide riots. He also railed against the Great Society, calling it a mistake and waste of money. After votes were tallied, Nixon won by only a percent more that Humphery, largely due to Wallace taking 13.5 % of the vote. Since they had each targeted some of the same groups, Nixon had faced a close call with Humphery, but with the Republicans in the White House, things were certainly going to change.

The three candidates of 1968: Nixon, Humphery, and Wallace

Change was coming in America, and with the onset of the worst fighting in Vietnam, most Americans felt that they needed it. They were hoping that by changing their leaders, they would be changing the way that their country acted around the world. They wanted their country to defeat communism around the globe, and to rise above war. However, with Nixon coming into the presidency, it seems as though the war had only just begun. After Watergate in 1974, the role of the presidency was seriously affected, and Americans felt the need to govern themselves and to not depend on the people they had elected to lead them throught difficult times.

Chapter 29: The Struggle for Social Reform

IDs:

• Jackie Robinson- First African-American baseball player to play for a major league team
• Harry S. Truman- President from 1945 to 1953
• NAACP- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1910
• Dwight D. Eisenhower- President from 1953 to 1959
• Sufi Abdul Hamid- Itinerant street preacher from Chicago who becan the “Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work” campaign
• Rosa Parks- Famous African-American woman who refused to leave her seat in the whites only section of the bus, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott
• Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.- possibly one of the most famous African-American rights leaders of all time, he helped organize the bus boycott and went on to lead many famous peaceful marches and protests
• CORE- The Congress of Racial Equality, founded in 1942
• SCLC- Southern Christian Leadership Conference, founded in 1957 (MLK)
• SNCC- The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
• John F. Kennedy- President from 1959-1963
• Lyndon B. Johnson- President from 1963-1967
• Malcolm X- born Malcolm Little, black leader who advocated black separatism and nationalism
• Stokely Carmichael- worked with Malcolm X and led some blacks to violent acts
• H. Rap Brown- Carmichael’s successor, known for saying “Violence is as American as cherry pie”
• Richard Nixon- President from 1967-1974

Vocabulary:

• Segregation- belief in separation of races, mostly referred to between whites and blacks during the Civil Rights movement
• Desegregation- belief is mixing of peoples with no discrimination of race or gender
• Lynching- term used when referring to the hanging of African-Americans during periods of racial tension
• Integrated- similar to desegregated, refers to mixing of races
• Constitutionality- refers to when the Supreme Court rules whether or not a law is permitted by the Constitution

Martin Luther King and Malcolm X shake hands and smile even during rough times

African Americans and the Civil Rights Movement:

                The Civil Rights Movement had been going on for decades, and equality for blacks had been a conflict for centuries. The modern movement began to kick-start during the Post-war years, when segregated servicemen returned from Europe and the Pacific, decorated in medals.

                Jackie Robinson was a phenomenal baseball player during the war years, and in 1947 he was accepted to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers, becoming the first African-American ever to play in the major league. Thanks to an incredible rookie season, Robinson became gradually more accepted and paved the way for future African-American stars.

                As the U.S. tried to act as the “good guy” during the Cold War, it became more and more apparent that there were too many underlying racial problems for the U.S. to be the leader of the “free world.” This immediately drew attention to the racial problem and jumpstarted the reforms of the 1950s and 60s. Truman believed in political equality, but not in full blown social equality. He did, however, create a committee to help solve problems of racial violence, such as lynchings. He also created a twenty-year plan for civil rights advancements.

                In February 1948, Truman created a ten-point plan for Congress, outlining his plans. Many Congressmen from the southern Democratic Party bolted later in 1948, and Truman quickly issued an executive order against discrimination in the federal establishment. He also ordered desegregation in the military, which was eventually fully completed when the desire for manpower in the Korean War led to the need for any troops the military could get. Also, after several experiments, the army found the integrated units functioned well and were equally effective.

                The Justice Department of the United States began to meet with leaders from the NAACP to help fight the battle against segregation. They put pressure on the Supreme Court, bringing up issues of the constitutionality of restrictions on housing, education, and interstate transportation. The judicial system was a major step in the desegregation of education. The NAACP wanted to change decision of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which stated that races could be separated if facilities provided were “separate but equal.” The major court case for integrated education came in the form of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Oliver Brown, father of Linda Brown, sued the school board of Topeka, Kansas for not allowing his daughter to go to the white school that she passes everyday on the way to her bus for the black school. The final ruling stated that the phrase “separate but equal” was actually unequal and that separate facilities were unconstitutional.

                Desegregation began to grow throughout the country. Schools began to integrate, as well as navy yards and veterans’ hospitals. However, Little Rock, Arkansas became the center of anti-integration protest, when the governor used National Guardsmen to keep the new black students from entering. Eventually, after being repelled by both National Guardsmen from the governor and a mob of white students, the new black students were protected by federal troops sent by President Eisenhower. This was the first time federal troops protected blacks’ rights since Reconstruction.

                Other Civil Rights campaigns such as “Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work” and “We Die Together. Let’s Eat Together” began to sweep across the nation. Incidents like the famous Rosa Parks Bus Incident became more and more apparent. The Rosa Parks incident led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, where tens of thousands of blacks walked or car-pooled to take away the business of the transit system. The Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional. Significance: The Mont. Bus Boycott sparked a wave a peaceful protests, where blacks used simple demonstrations to override segregation laws. Simple acts such as not leaving a lunch counter made whites very uncomfortable, because they often felt that force was the only way to remove blacks, but using violence made them seem like the “bad guy.”

                A leader formed from the boycott: Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. He became a strong player in the field of peaceful protest, and although he was at times a controversial figure, his actions quickly paved the way to equal rights for all. He had a way with words that astounded people, and he easily became a figurehead for the movement.

                Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas used his political genius to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1957, which created a Civil Rights Commission and allowed the Justice Department to go to court in suffrage prejudice against blacks. Johnson then led the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which increased the penalty of people who interfered with blacks’ right to vote. Unfortunately, the act didn’t authorize federal registrars to register blacks and the act was nearly useless.

                Racial violence continued. Sit-ins led to many beating and mobs, and when the police showed up, often the peaceful blacks were arrested. In a Freedom Ride incident, local police gave Ku Klux Klansmen 15 minutes alone to beat the riders on the disabled bus. The FBI was informed of the window provided but did nothing to stop it.

Dogs were set on blacks during peaceful protests, as is shown in this example from Birmingham, Alabama in 1963. Often, high pressure water hoses were used on blacks as well.

                Kennedy was slow to pass any Civil Rights acts, but finally he pushed a new bill to Congress, far stronger than others before it. It prohibited segregation in public places, anywhere where federal money was involved, and also advanced the process of school integration. However, he was unable to get the bill through. Lyndon B. Johnson, his successor, finally drilled the act past Congress in 1964.

                One of the biggest gatherings during the Civil Rights Movement was the march on Washington in August 1963. Over 200,000 people gathered to sing hymns, listen to speakers, see famous celebrities, and finally to hear MLK give his “I have a dream” speech.

                Despite advances both in the law and in society, racism still ran strong through the veins of the nation, and beatings, arrests, and even bombings became more and more evident. Voting restrictions in the South were a problem, and finally in the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the U.S. attorney general was allowed to appoint federal examiners to places where local officials were restricting blacks from voting.

                While non-violent protests seemed to work in the beginning, blacks became restless as they waited for something extraordinary to happen. Some young leaders became more and more angry with King, asking him when their rights will come. Malcolm X was one of these leaders. He advocated black separatism, saying the blacks shouldn’t have to wait for the white man while they can achieve their goals on their own.

                Nixon was less sympathetic to Civil Rights, and sought to pull back federal involvement and commitment to the cause. He pulled the government out of fair-housing enforcement, and also tried to block bills being passed through Congress. Busing became a major issued, and segregated school buses were a major problem. After a long debate, people became tense and even started to stone the buses that carried black students to their schools.

The Civil Rights Movement changed the world, as one of the biggest reform movements in American history. The blacks and whites involved in the struggle showed what true commitment was, and were able to overcome the barriers of society to achieve what really mattered to them: equal rights. The Civil Rights Movement opened the doors to numerous advancements for people of all races and religions, and led to new strides in cultural sharing and the links between continents that help the world function.

Chapter 30:         The Revival of Conservatism

Civil Rights- Rights for African Americans declined during this period.

I)        Several court cases ruled against different education issues.

A)     In Freeman v. Pitts in 1992, the Court ruled against a desegregation order against the school board from a Alabama suburban school, on the grounds that it was too massive of a demographic area to counteract it.

B)      In 1995, the Court allowed a lower court to prohibit special scholarships to blacks and other minorities.

II)      Despite some blacks rising to some powerful positions, tensions still remained high.

A)     Some blacks rose to be mayors of major cities, and even governor of Virginia.

B)      Rev. Jesse Jackson ran two large-scale presidential campaigns

C)      However, racism was a very present thing throughout the period.

<--Jesse Jackson

Women’s Rights- Rights for women also tended to slow down through the period.

I)        Women also began to rise to power.

A)     Sandra Day O’Connor became the first Supreme Court justice in 1981.

B)      Geraldine Ferraro became the vice-presidential candidate for the Democratic Party in 1984.

II)      Women still held low-paying jobs, just as they had since the last decade.

A)     While some rose above and beyond simple jobs, the majority of women remained in lower paying jobs.

B)      Most frequently, women worked as secretaries, cashiers, bookkeepers, registered nurses, and waitresses. Family responsibilities often kept women from advancing up the corporate ladder.

C)      Full time working women only earned 63.6 cents for every dollar that men earned.

III)    Abortions

A)     Conservatives held a campaign against the right to abortion, and to do this they suggested that federal funding should not be giving for abortions for the needy, and that only hospitals should be allowed to perform abortions. They hoped that the Court would, in the end, reverse the decision entirely.

B)      The pro-life supporters had some success in the Court, and it was decided that the state legislatures would be allowed to put more restrictions on abortions as they wished.

C)      Restrictions included a 24-hour waiting period for women seeking abortions and parental consent for teenage girls to receive an abortion as well. 

<--Sandra Day O'Connor

Latino Rights- Limited Commitment

I)        Education was difficult for Latino youth.

A)     Spanish-speaking students found it difficult to move through the educational system.

B)      In 1987, 40% of Latino high school students didn’t graduate high school.

C)      Only 31% of Latino seniors were enrolled in college-prep courses.

D)     Of the Latinos who did go to college, 56% attended community colleges, and only 7% completed a course of study.

II)      Latinos, like other groups, extended their political gains, but most workers stayed in low-paying jobs.

A)     Various Latinos became mayors and state legislatures, and Lauro Cavazos became Secretary of Education in 1988, and two other Latinos were on the presidential cabinet in 1993.

B)      However, while the nation unemployment lowered, the rate actually increased for Latinos, even more than it did for blacks.

<--Lauro Cavazos

Native Americans- Also had less commitment to reform

I)        Most Native Americans relied on tribal connections to succeed in life.

A)     From an early age the children are taught about providing for everyone instead of just yourself, which is what the white men do.

B)      They used the helped of their neighbors to form businesses and to help cut the employment rate down.

C)      One of the major advancements in the Native American economy was the formation of casinos. The Pequots in Connecticut formed the most profitable casino in the United States.

Commentary: As is suggested by the name of the chapter, reform is reduced throughout this period. Conservatism takes over the country, and many reform groups are unable to make any major advancements. Americans seem unwilling for change. The powerful white Americans have control over the country, and since their lives don't need change, most believe that other Americans don't need change either. Most reform movements are rejected because they are deemed unnecessary by the government.