Group #2: Tommy C. || Emilie H. || Rachel M.

 

 

Globalization

Engagement with the rest of the world from the fifteenth century to the present: colonialism, mercantilism, global hegemony, development of markets, imperialism, and cultural exchange.

 

 

 

Globalization in Chapter 25: World War II

I. Global Hegemony / Imperialism

    A. America

1. Roosevelt extends the Good Neighbor Policy that Hoover initiated, completing the removal of American military forces. Roosevelt pledges that no country in hemisphere will intervene in internal or external affairs of others. At Pan-American conference, the United States and most Latin American countries agree to resist all foreign intervention in hemisphere.

- However, Roosevelt still has economic trade interests in Latin America. There is a pressure to resume policy of military intervention because Latin American economies were damaged by the depression. This demonstrates a somewhat incomplete 'neutrality,' and the obvious presence of economic concern.

 

2. The U.S. maintains good relations with other countries, fearing the need for cooperation within western hemisphere nations in order to resist the growing powers of Germany and Italy.

 

3. After Poland falls, Americans are unsure of how to respond to the conflicts in Europe. William Allen White organizes the ‘Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies’, while Charles Lindbergh supports ‘America First’, a group which suggests that Americans defend themselves first, putting other conflicts second. Roosevelt approves the shipment of American destroyers to Britain in exchange for the right to establish naval and air bases on Newfoundland, Bermuda, and British Guiana.

- The different groups created display the emotional division in America about the pre-war rumblings in Europe.

 

4. Upon entering the war, Roosevelt mentions the four freedoms: freedom of speech and expression, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear, all in uncertainty of why the U.S. really decides to enter the war. A clear outline is never prosposed like that of Wilson’s Fourteen Points during WWI, but the plan is to end war and solve political problems.

- Unlike the Axis Powers, the U.S. enters the war not for imperialism, but rather for global hegemony with an aim to keep peace amongst the worldy countries.

 

    B. Germany

1. Hitler becomes the leader of the National Socialist party (the Nazis) and leads and unsuccessful coup. He becomes chancellor on January 30, 1933, and later Fuhrer and dictator of Germany. He creates a Fascist regime that concentrates political and economic power in a centralized state. Ultimately, he intends to conquer Europe and make the German Third Reich center of new civilization.

- Hitler's striving for power is a key example of imperialism.

 

2. In 1934, Hitler announces program of German rearmament, which violates the Versailles Treaty.

- This begins the breaking away of Germany from other countries, and its rebellion as well. The violation of the Versailles Treaty makes Hitler's intentions clear -- he plans to get power.

 

3. In March 1938, Germany annexes Austria, occupies Sudetenland, and overruns Czechoslovakia.

- Due to the lack of coverage about stories involving Hitler’s aggression towards others, many Americans do not learn about specific events until long after they are over. Germany’s slow expansion did not spark much protest from Americans. (Why do you think this happens?)

 

4. On August 23, 1939, a Nazi-Soviet pact is created.

- Many Americans had previous hopes that there would be a communist-fascist clash that would end all conflicts and create neutrality amongst the countries, but the Nazi-Soviet pact obviously destroys that hope.

 

5. Hitler’s attack on Poland marks the beginning of WWII. Britain and France defend Poland, and Roosevelt attempts to repeal the embargo and create an approval of the sale of arms on cash-and-carry basis for France and Britain.

- Remember that there are multiple causes of WWII, and that there are other events that are considered to be the “start” of the war. Also, Roosevelt’s attempt indicates that he is willing to help other countries in defeating Hitler, but does not want to be directly involved in the war -- again, a sense of 'partial' neutrality. Another example that demonstrates Roosevelt's 'neutrality' is his secret project to race to build an atomic bomb after receiving news that the German were making them.

 

6. Poland is overwhelmed and falls to Germany in 1939. Joseph Kennedy suggests a peace settlement to recognize German and Russian occupation of Poland, but his suggestion is ignored.

- Clearly, negotiation is not enough to settle all conflicts...

 

    C. Italy

1. Benito Mussolini, the Fascist dictator of Italy, builds a powerful military and plans to invade the East African country of Ethiopia.

 

2. In May of 1935, Italy invades Ethiopia after rejecting the League of Nations’ offer to help settle conflicts between the two countries.

- This causes the U.S. to fear war even more. Remembering what happened in WWI, Roosevelt passes a Neutrality Act to prohibit all arms shipments to nations at war, and again advising citizens not to travel on belligerents’ ships. Ultimately, the arms embargo does not have much of an effect on Italy.

 

3. The League of Nations condemns Italy as the aggressor in the war.

 

    D. Spain

1. Civil war breaks out in Spain in 1936. Countries leap to help. General Francisco Franco, who revolted against the republican government, receives aid from Germany and Italy in the form of planes and weapons. The Soviet Union supports the Spanish republican Loyalists

- Many Americans believe the civil war in Spain is a cause worth fighting for, and many join the Abraham Lincoln Brigade to fight. However, the U.S. remains neutral -- however, the Neutrality Act does not apply to civil wars, but the government applies a moral embargo. Some Americans ignore the moral embargo and try to send planes to the loyalists. Congress passes another Neutrality Act, which made it illegal for Americans to travel on belligerents’ ships and made nonmilitary items available to belligerents on a cash-and-carry basis.

 

2. In 1945, political aspects begin to stand out once again, as it needs to be decided which countries will control defeated countries in Europe after the fall of Hitler.

- A key example of global hegemony. (:

 

 

II. Development of Markets

    A. America

1. Previously, worldwide depression almost caused financial disaster in Europe. Germany defaults on reparations installments, and other European countries are unable to keep up payments on debts to the United States. In response, Hoover agrees to brief moratorium on the war debts in 1931. He also pledges American participation in ithe nternational economic conference, located in London on June of 1933.

 

2. Roosevelt recognizes the Soviet Union in hopes of gaining a market for surplus American grain.

- His tactic does not succeed in creating a new market, but communication between the two countries is opened. They do reach an agreement for the Soviet Union to pay old debts and extend rights to American citizens located in the Soviet Union.

 

3. The Roosevelt administration supports dictators, especially in Central America in order to promote stability and protect American economic interests. Also improving trade is the Trade Agreements Act of 1934 and the Good Neighbor Policy.

- Although trade is increased, it does not solve the economic problems of the U.S. or those of Latin America.

 

4. Senator Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota investigates the connection between corporate profits and American participation during WWI, finding that many American businessmen had close relationships with the War Department.

- A conspiracy is not actually proved, but it may be concluded that the people of the U.S. were previously tricked into war by businessmen and government for economic profit.

 

5. Roosevelt creates the Lend-Lease Act, allowing the U.S. to send aid to Britain without compensation. Later into the war, this act is extended to the Soviet Union.

- The aid that the U.S. supplies to Britain marks the destruction of the United States' neutrality.

 

6. Well into the war, Roosevelt compromises with Francisco Franco to aid Spain in return for the safe movement of American shipping into the Mediterranean.

 

7. Roosevelt creates the War Production Board, which offers businesses cost-plus contracts that guarantee a fixed profit. The administration also abandons antitrust actions, allowing industrial production to flourish. Farmers also see an increase in profit.

- This goes along with the typical trend that war uplifts a nation’s economy, a lift much needed after the Great Depression ruins America's.

 

8. “Despite some unfairness and much confusion, the American economy responded to the wartime crisis and turned out the equipment and supplies that eventually won the war. American industries built 300,000 airplanes, 88,140 tanks, and 3,000 merchant ships…  At the same time, full employment and the increase in two-income families, together with forced savings, helped provide capital for postwar expansion” (Page 884, from our textbook)

- All in all, the American ecnomy benefits from WWII.

 

The signing of the Lend-Lease Act

 

Source

 

    B. Japan

1. Japan is not only interested in becoming a world power; it needs natural resources and is willing to go to war to get them. The U.S. gives Japan a six months’ notice about cancelling commercial agreement between the two in 1939.

 

2. In 1941, Roosevelt forbids the shipment of airplane fuel and scrap metal to Japan, along with other items in hopes of sparking a negotiation (oil is still supplied, however). In agreement talks, Japan fails to agree to withdraw from China, causing Roosevelt to freeze all Japanese assets in the U.S.

- All of this builds up to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

 

3. The Japanese capture the Dutch East Indies in 1942, an area rich in rubber, oil, and resources.

 

 

III. Cultural Exchange (or lack thereof)

A. Because the government makes attempts to keep Americans aware of WWII (propaganda), patriotism is promoted throughout the time period. Being ‘patriotic’ included the purchasing of war bonds.

- In the end, patriotism leads to lack of cultural exchange. Americans become racist towards the Japanese, Germans, and Italians, painting stereotypical portraits of each. (See internment of Japanese Americans in American Diversity)

 

B. In November of 1942, Americans finally receive news about the extermination of Jews, and Roosevelt and his administration fail to take any serious action.

- If Roosevelt had acted, his aid may have helped saved thousands of lives...

 

The negative portrayal of the Japanese by Americans

 

Source

 

IV. Vocabulary Terms / I.D.s

     A. Vocabulary Terms

Global hegemony - leadership of one nation over others; aggression or expansionism by large nations to achieve world domination

Foreign policy - a nation’s diplomatic policy in its interactions with other nations

Facism - a governmental system led by a dictator, regimenting industry and emphasizing aggressive nationalism

Neutrality - in this case, the U.S.’s determination to avoid being involved in the war

Rearmament - the German’s decision to rearm with weapons

Isolation - the separation of a nation from other nations (compare and contrast this with neutrality..)

Arms embargo - a government order prohibiting the selling of arms to another country

Moral embargo - basically, an arms embargo applicable to a civil war

Assets - cash, stock, inventories, property rights, and goodwill

Moratorium - an authorized period of delay

Internment - a state of confinement

Patriotism - national loyalty

Propaganda - the deliberate spreading of information – in this case, through media advertising war bonds

Racism - a belief that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule others

Stereotyping - to characterize -- in this case, falsely

Cash-and-carry basis - products bought with cash; the buyer had to provide their own transportation of the product

     B. I.D.s 

Soviet Union

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Good Neighbor policy

Latin America

Trade Agreements Act of 1934 

Germany

Adolf Hitler

National Socialist party / Nazi

Treaty of Versailles

Senator Gerald P. Nye

Neutrality Act

League of Nations

Spain

Austria

Sudetenland

Czechoslovakia

Lend-Lease Act

Japan

Pearl Harbor

Axis Powers

Allied Powers

 

 

 

Globalization in Chapter 26: Postwar Growth and Social Change

I. Development of Markets – mostly just American economy expansion amongst itself, due it the U.S. becoming more self-dependent (see Economic Transformations for more detailed economic issues); not as involved with other countries like it was in the previous chapter

 

A. The United States became the richest nation in the world due to economic expansion in the postwar years. In addition, the U.S. produced half the world’s goods. The government contributed to the growing economy by letting business purchase war-time factories for a cheap price.

- Remember, this economic expansion began when the U.S. began to recover from the Great Depression, not necessarily just in the postwar time period. Although the middle-class grew, do not confuse this with the wealth distribution, which still remained the same. The upper class still earned more than the bottom half of the population. Also remember, the war caused many to save money, and in postwar years, consumers could purchase more than they could previously, further fueling the economy.

 

B. Almost 60% of Americans were in the middle class, and many earned higher wages, which allowed them to buy new products.

- With economic expansion, many could afford new products because they were cheaper and because individuals had more money.

 

C. The automobile industry expanded, and in turn, contributed to economic growth. The interstate highway system grew as well, fueling the purchase of automobiles. And of course, automobiles need oil, making the U.S. dependent on a cheap oil supply.

- Cars were not bought by just the upper class – the middle class could afford them as well. The growth in number of automobile purchases also demonstrates how the U.S. is a “consumer culture.” And just something I found interesting: our book mentions that many people were proud of the interstate highway system because it would allow for faster evacuation in the case of a nuclear attack.

 

Source

 

D. In addition to the automobile industry, house construction also contributed to the growth of the American economy. Many were able to buy homes because of offers to returning servicemen (low-interest home mortgages).

 

E. Americans supported the struggle against communism and mostly did not object to Cold War defense spending. “Cold war is the catalyst. Cold war is an automatic pump primer. Turn a spigot, and the public clamors for more arms spending.” (David Lawrence, page 917 in our text)

- This is one of the main globalization topics in this chapter, since it actually involves a non-U.S. country. With the U.S. now in a period of peacetime, they encouraged defense spending in fear of nuclear attacks.

 

F. Conglomerates began to develop in the industrial world, which gave companies strength in many economic areas. Expansion was also large amongst franchise operations and major corporations, both within the United States and into foreign markets.

- Why was foreign expansion important? Foreign labor costs were much cheaper than U.S. labor costs, allowing companies to produce more goods for a cheaper price.

 

McDonalds was one of the franchises that expanded in the post-war years.

Source

 

II. Cultural Exchange - like the development of markets, there was less global cultural exchange, with this chapter focusing more on the United States. (See Culture for more details)

 

A. Within America -- With the growth of the U.S. economy, Americans became focused on new technologies, becoming a “consumer culture” in the opinion of some. The number of households owning products such as radios and televisions grew, ultimately changing American culture through radio broadcasts and especially television programs. Conformity also grew during this time period, especially in schools and religion, with stereotypes forming due to popular culture.

 

Source

 

B. Within America -- Although the American economy expanded, the lower class still existed. Minorities still struggled for work; many were Latino and African American. African Americans still had issues in the American culture and economy. Many still suffered from poverty and were stuck in ghettos; it was difficult for them to move to different locations and find work. “Operation Wetback” was created to deport illegal entrants.

 

 

III. Vocabulary Terms / IDs

    A. Vocabulary Terms

Discretionary income – money available to families, that covered both wants and needs

Urban flight – shift of population to urban areas

Consumer culture – a culture into the purchase of material possessions

Conformity - similarity within a group or society

     B. IDs

Interstate Highway Act of 1956

President Eisenhower

GI Bill of 1944

National Security Act

Department of Defense

Cold War

Korean War

Operation Wetback

 

 

 

Globalization in Chapter 27: Chills and Fever During the Cold War

I. Global Hegemony

 

A.  The United States

1. “The United States, strong and secure, was intent on spreading its vision of freedom and free trade around the world to maintain its own economic hegemony” (Pg. 948 in our textbook). 

- Resulting from World War II was a strengthened American economy, which is exactly what the U.S. needed for post-war reconstruction. In addition to economic hegemony, American policy makers wished to spread American values (liberty, equality, democracy). However, the question was whether countries would really accept American values over their own. Probably not…

 

2. In April of 1945 at a meeting with Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov, President Harry Truman attempted to impose a democratic government on the Russians.

- Although this mainly highlights faltering Soviet-American relations, this is also an example of Americans attempting to impose their values on others.

 

3. Using the Truman Doctrine, Truman attempted to hold back the Soviet communism threat. (Containment)

- This extended the belief that the U.S. was to “police” the rest of the world.

 

Harry Truman delivering the Truman Doctrine address.

Source

 

4. With Mao Zedong growing in power in China, President Eisenhower was committed to defending Taiwan from a Communist attack.

- Many leaders enforced the idea of going to a great extent to protect the “free world.”

 

5. President Eisenhower cut off oil from England and France after their armies invaded Egypt in 1948, and the two countries withdrew.

- The United States often intruded in the Middle East, in addition to the typical Latin America. Eisenhower stated that “the existing vacuum in the Middle East must be filled by the United States before it is filled by Russia.” Global hegemony, anyone?

 

Containment during the Cold War.

Source.

 

B. The Soviet Union

1. The Soviets direct their focus away from world revolution.

- Although in the past the Soviets focused on world conquest, they realized that allies disliked the idea, and began to focus on socialism in its own nation.

 

2. Like the Americans, the Soviets first plan after WWII was to reconstruct, which needed internal security. They often feared invasions and made sure that regions neighboring them had military and political stability.

 

 

II. Development of Markets

 

A. President Truman cut off lend-lease supplies to the Allies six days after V-E Day.

- The Soviet Union, out of all the Allies, took the biggest hit from this decision. The USSR asked the U.S. for loans twice after the war, and both Roosevelt and Truman were wary about making the decision because they wanted compensation – specifically, Truman wanted the U.S. to gain access to markets that the USSR usually dominated and he also wanted Russia to pledge “nondiscrimination in world commerce.” In the end, no money was leant because Stalin turned down the offer.

 

B.The Marshall Plan was an attempt to uplift the European economy to have markets for its own goods.

- By assisting the European economy, the United States would in turn help its own economy by having markets to sell to, and it would also go with the idea that the U.S. was to aid other countries and promote its values.

 

Source

 

III. Cultural Exchange

 

A. “As Americans soured on Russia, they began to equate the Nazi and Soviet systems and to transfer their hatred of Nazi Germany to Communist Russia” (pg. 951).

- Many began to point out how similar Nazi Germany was to Communist Russia, and the political issues between America and Russia fueled the fire of the growing tension between the two countries even more. Russia became more and more disliked by Americans.

 

B. During the Korean War, U.S. forces fought in integrated units. African Americans finally fought alongside whites.

 

Source

 

IV. IDs

Harry Truman

The Soviet Union

Containment Policy

Stalin

Truman Doctrine

The Marshall Plan

China

Mao Zedong

Dwight Eisenhower

Korean War

 

Globilization in Chapter 28: High Water and Ebb Tide of the Liberal State

 

I. Global Hegemony 

A. Congress funds NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Adminastration), and ultimately sends Neil Armstrong to the moon.

- Congress assented for numerous reasons, but the main was the arms race with Russia during the on-going Cold War.  As Russia built nuclear bombs, we had to create Hyrdrogen bombs.  The same principal applied to space.  As they created Sputnik, Kennedy wanted to send a man to the moon.  America had explored space already, having sent Alan Shepard and John Glenn, but he wanted to make the glamorous claim of being the first country to actually set foot on the moon.  The feat was accomplished in 1969, before the decade ended, as Kennedy promised.

 

In 1969, the federally funded NASA sends Neil Armstrong to the moon.

 

B. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps, sending men and women overseas to aid foreign countries.

- The Peace Corps is obviously still around today, marking it as an important stride taken by the Kennedy administration.  Whether or not it is just is another question, however.  The Corps was created, according to Kennedy's officials, to replace soldiers with missionaries of a democracy who could assimilate into the culture and help fight battles against "ignorance and want."  Though many countries were still in a developing stage and possibly needed assistance, the reasoning behind the Peace Corps (at least initially) reeked of the imperialistic idea of the "white man's burden."  The establishment itself is meant to help, and has succeeded enormously, but the question still remains as to the motives behind it's original creation (as presented by the book) and whether America has the right to impose ourselves on these developing nations.  [Disclaimer: Again, no offense is meant to the Peace Corps, as it is recognized as an extremely well-minded, helpful organization that has ended poverty in many needful areas.]

 

  

A stamp with a picture of a man working in the Peace Corps in Africa. 

Question: An extension of imperialism, or a true desire to help?

 

C. The Vietnam War continues.

-This negatively affects the American economy, the Great Society, and will ultimately lead to mass discord among citizens, some of whom support the government, but most of whom disagree with the war and the federal methods of dealing with it.  [See chapter 27 as well as the Economy wiki and development of markets below]

 

II. Development of Markets

*Expanded to include some economic issues that will ultimately hamper America as a world power  

 

A. Kennedy imposes liberal restrictions on companies, specifically steel manufacturers, that are more than ready for a return to the conservative values that are usually in their favor.

-The stock market crashed and plunged the lowest since it had in 1929, to which Kennedy received blame.  We can see how this will set the stage for the major return to conservativism in the 1970's until Clinton.

 

B. The Vietnam war negatively affects the American economy.

-As military expenditures increased, the economy could not keep up with the demand.  LBJ refused to raise taxes to compensate for monetary losses, however, which forced Congress to cut programs, ultimately ending the large-scale reforms of the Great Society.

 

The war in Vietnam causes not only turmoil between Americans, but fiscal and economic problems as well.

 

C. Tax cuts made by the liberal/democratic association, make the economy boom, but due to the economic crisis caused by the Vietnam war, a new conservative government is issued in.

- The conservatives, however, cannot gain control of the economy, as they refuse to implement concentrated authority.  Ultimately, Nixon, Ford, and Carter worsen the economic condition in the United States.

 

III. Cultural Exchange

A. US Court makes landmark ruling in Brown V. Board of Education, declaring “separate but equal” facilities to have no place in public education.

- The decision did not desegregate schools everywhere, as many got around the ruling or outright disobeyed it.  However it was a major step in creating equality between races.  The court also made other rulings that further defined citizen rights, such as the right to an attorney during questioning (Escobedo v. Illinois), the right to be notified of the charges against you prior to arrest, as well as the right to remain silent and to be warned of self-incrimination (Miranda v. Arizona), and that poor defendants had the right to free legal counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright).

 

Desegregation due to the ruling of Brown V. Board of Education.

 

IV. Terms/ID's

Vietnam

Desegregation

Brown V. Board of Education

NASA

Kennedy

Liberalism

Conservativism

Nixon

Ford

Carter

 

V. Vocabulary

Peace Corps - An American volunteer program that sends people to countries around the world to help abolish poverty and turmoil.

Great Society – LBJ's domestic programs designed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice.

 

Globilization in Chapter 29: The Struggle for Social Reform 

Summary: The era of the 60's and 70's marks the third movement for social reform, the other two major periods being the Progressive Era and New Deal.  This era was unique, however, in its emphasis on marginalized Americans calling for reform, rather than middle-class activists.  It highlighted the voices of outsiders and minorities and their efforts to change the outdated ideals of American life.

 

I. Global Hegemony - The war continues in Vietnam.

- Though this chapter does not focus on America's involvement overseas, it does mention the opposition the youth posed towards the war. Many protested and considered America's involvement to be futile, fruitless, and morally questionable.

 

II. Development of Markets

A. Markets use up resources, allerting environmentalists to the scarcity of natural resources.

- In the 60's and 70's many Americans began to recognize that clean air, unpolluted waters, and unspoiled wilderness were indispensable to a decent existence.  As markets began to exhaust natural resources and continued to utilize oil, many became aware of the dangers of green house gasses and the loss of clearn water and forests. This became a concern to a great number of Americans, and fostered the first sense of the "green" movements seen today.

 

B. The Consumer movement is provoked by a distrust of unscrupulous sellers.

- This marked the beginning of busniesses being responsible for their own consumers and sparked an interest in the purchasing public only seen previously in years of Teddy Roosevelt and his Food and Drug Acts. The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, for insance, set safety standards for vehicles on public highways.

 

III. Cultural Exchange

      A. Blacks

1. Blacks gain more rights and equality through protest and voice.

- Throughout the 1950's and 60's the civil rights movement was a dominant issue. Even in the 1940's people such as Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier and proved blacks to be on equal playing fields as whites. The Sumpreme Court ruling in Brown V. Board of Education was a bombshell, and formally declared "separate but equal" to have no place in public education. Still, blacks would not be considered equal to whites for a few more decades, and many more organizations and protests arose for the improvement of black standing.

     

2. Blacks take separate approaches to the issue of civil rights, resulting in cultural factions within one culture.

- One approach, as practiced by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., was that of peaceful protest and nonviolence. While this seemed to be more favorable among whites and gained a large audience, many blacks found King's methods to be too laid back. In response, Malcolm X and his followers grew tired of the beatings, lynchings, and arrests, and found King's methods to rely too heavily on acquiescence of the white man. He preached more direct and radical means of dealing with the segregation issue. The division of preachers within the black movement is highly similar to that of W.E.B DoBois and Booker T. Washington in the late 19th century. The approach taken by Malcolm X also created a sense of black pride that was fostered back in the Harlem Renaissance.

 

Malcolm X and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.--two influential voices of the Civil Rights Movement.

 

3. Some whites find themselves sympathetic to the black cause, while others remain strictly against it.

- Through horrifying pictures of peaceful blacks being arrested and beaten, some whites found themselves supporting the issue of civil rights. Even so, many still saw blacks as subservient to whites, and remained staunchly against desegregation. They found the notion of separate by equal to be in good standing and feared the alteration of the status quo. Of those that sympathized with the cause, many still were alienated by the radical notions of Malcolm X. Despite a good number of whites agreeing that separate but equal violated constitutional law, many were not ready to accept such a radical change of rights.

 

Policemen attack black protesters at Birmingham.

 

4. Though the issue of black rights was one that needed addressing, some whites in the 70's complained of "reverse racism" or the idea that so much attention was being paid to blacks and minorities, that whites were being ignored.

- In Bakke vs. The University of California, Allan Bakke sued the school for rejecting him on the grounds that their quota reserving 16 out of 100 places for minorities violated the Civil Rights Act and was a form of reverse racism.

 

     B. Women

1. More women enter the work force and attend college.               

- By 1970, 41% of all BA degrees were earned by women.  In 1970 men outnumbered women in business, medicine, and engineering fields [in college] eight to one, but by 1975, the ratio dropped to three to one.

      

2. Women begin to challenge their previous image of the docile homemaker and seek the promotion of their own rights.

- The orgainization NOW (National Organization for Women) sought fair pay and equal opportunity and attacked the false image of women in the mdeia. It attempted the promote equal opportunity for women. However, just as radical blacks were unsatisfied with King's peaceful protest, some feminists found NOW's agenga too leniant and felt it did not adequately address the oppression women faced.  

 

3. Feminists gain a voice.

- With publications of magazines such as Ms., as well as books like Our Bodies, Ourselves, differed radically from homemaking publications of previous years such as Good Homemaking and Ladies' Home Journal.     

 

     C. Latinos

1. Mexican Americans fight for equal rights, fair wages and working conditions, and political representation.

- Much like blacks, Mexican Americans were discriminated against in the workplace, school, and in government. Due to the radicals of the 1970's, however, many gained more rights in all areas. Cesar Chavez, for instance, laucned boycotts to demand better pay as well as recognition of the union. He gained success and became one of the first political leaders of the Chicano field hands. Jose ANgel Gutierrez formed an organization which developed into the La Raza Unida political party and promoted Mexican American candidates for political offices.  Even students began to protest conditions in secondary schools that were overcrowded and rundown and were inadequate for learning.

 

Cesar Chavez became a leading figure in the promotion of Mexican American rights, especially in the workforce.

 

     D. Native Americans

1. Deprived of rights and land for centuries, Native Americans take heed from other groups in the 1960's and 70's and gain their own recognition.

- Native Americans continued to live on reservations, founding their own colleges, and acting as legal advocates for their own people. They became heavily reliant on themselves. The government adopted the termination policy, which eliminated reservations as legitimate political entities and offered subsidies to families who would leave reservations and relocate in cities (in order to assimilate natives into white society). This victimized Native Americans and allowed their lands to be seized by others. However, it increased Indian activism and fostered a sense of Indian identity and their right to maintain their heritage.

 

     E. Youth

1. Student enrollment in college rises.

- By the 1960's student enrollment quadrupled from what it was in the 1940's. Colleges became a training ground for industry and corporate life and gave students time to experiment and grow before making a living. The sudden surge of enrollment was also due largely in part to youth reluctance to participate in the war. If you were wealthy and could afford an education, you went to college to avoid being enlisted.

 

2. Students become more active in protests.

- They created the New Left and organized the Students for a Democratic Society, where they called for a better system where people would not be so isolated and estranged from one another due to modern life. This idea of a more connected community concerned with the betterment of society as a whole in relation to "democrats" resounds strongly with today's notions of democrats having socialistic tendencies.

 

The Weathermen were a militant fringe group of SDS that epitomized the radical side of the revolution by turning to violence.

 

3. Students protest for free speech outside of Berkeley.

- This marked a plea for traditoinal liberal reform, not at society, but at the university itself. Across the nation students were participating in confrontations with universities, demanding a greater say, involvment in school affairs, and curriculum reform. The youth of society that was for decades good for fighting in war and being "seen and not heard" was now challenging those confines.

 

     F. Counterculture

1. Hippies carried themselves in different ways and defied the norms of society.

- With long hair, sproted beards, jeans, and muslin shirts, hippies shocked many traditional conservatives of society. They deviated from social norms and rejected traditional marital customs.

 

Hippies often traveled the country on buses painted psychedelic colors and occupied their time with drugs.

 

2. Sex undergoes a revolution as more people embark on exploration of the act.

- With new contraceptives such as the pill, women were able to express freedom of sexuality and defy the myth of the sexually passive woman. Books and art also reflected the sexual freedom of the period, with D.H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover, as well as nudity in film and musicals.

 

3. Experimentation with drugs also becomes a huge part of the counterculture.

- LSD, cocain, marijuana, and other drugs, specifically hallucinogens provided a method of young people, especially hippies, of "opening their minds" and completely surrendering themselves to trips. Drug use was no longer confined to an urban subculture of musicians and artisis, but was open to many youthful Americans, and even became a right of passage, or coming-of-age ritual.   

 

4. Music reflected the changes of the era most profoundly.

- The gentle rock and roll of the 1950's along with folk music gave way to a kind of rock that swept the country. Elvis gave way to The Beatles, Bob Dylan, The Rolling Stons, Janis Joplin, and The Doors, all bands heavily influenced by the turbulent times, either in their lyrics, or in the fast-paced, guitar-laden rhythms and melodies.

 

5. Gays and Lesbians receive rights that were previously unheard of.

- Due to a sweeping of cultural revolution, the only group that remained largely untouched throughout the era to come forth was that of the gays and lesbians. Up until the 1960's and 70's, the homosexual lifestyle had been relatively nonexistant save for secret clubs. Largely, however, American society was strictly against any form of homosexuality, and to gay itself was considered a mental illness. With the surgeance of revolution, though, gays found themselves, if not accepted, at least gaining more advancements in rights (For instance the U.S. Civil Service Commission and the American Psychiatric Association ruling that homosexuality is not classified as a mental illness). With experimentation sweeping the U.S., and sex becoming more lenient, many became more open to the idea of homosexuality, though discrimination was still dominant in many areas of the United States.

 

 

IV. Vocabulary

Civil Rights Act of 1964 - outlawed racial segregation in schools, public places, and employment (later ammended to protect women and outlaw discrimination based on gender)

Voting Rights act of 1965 - outlawed discriminatory voting practices

Reverse Racism - The notion that so much energy and devotion is put into protecting minorities, that majorities (in most cases white Americans) are often forgotten about.

Counterculture - the values and norms of behavior of a cultural group, or subculture, that run counter to those of the social mainstream of the day

 

V. ID's

Civil Rights

Brown V. Board of Education

Plessy V. Ferguson

NAACP

Birmingham, Alabama protest

Nixon

Kennedy

Truman

Martin Luther King Jr.

Little Rock, Arkansas (Troops accompany blacks to school to ensure rights)

Jackie Robinson

Adam Clayton Powell 

Malcom X

Bakke vs. The University of California

The Weathermen

Hippies

"The pill"

Chicanos

Andy Warhol

Pop Culture

 

 

 Globalization in Chapter 30: The Revival of Conservatism

Summary: The era of the 1980's was marked predominantly by by a return to very conservative values and ideals.  Throughout the years leading up to this period, democrats had succeeded in establishing a slightly socialistic infrastructure that depended largely on centralized government and stressed aiding the unemployed, homeless, and lower classes.  Due to the turbulence of the 60's and Vietnam war, many found the concept of returning to a more traditional, conservative society appealing, and the elections and trends of the era proved true to this notion.  During the 1980's republicans, now being associated with a more conservative outlook, dominated the white house as seen by Ronald Regan and George Bush (I).  It wasn't until 1992 that Clinton took office, turning the republican tables and once again uprooting conservativism.  Even after, America struggled between conservativism and liberalism, affecting its relations with the rest of the world.

 

I. Global Hegemony

     A. America

1. America begins to slip in terms of having a productive industry.

- A lot of what we see today stems from this era: The fact that most of our daily products are manufactured in China and even the raw materials we use to build what we DO manufacture come from other countries.  All of this originates in this period where we begin to slip from our high status in industry and become a more service-oriented nation in terms of work.  Where we provided 60% of the world's iron and steel in 1946, in 1978, we produced only 16%.

 

2. Japan and Germany prove highly efficient after rebuilding and modernizing after WWII, surpassing the United States in terms of industry.

- This lead to America importing a large amount of its iron and steel, forcing us to rely heavily on other countries for goods, a dependency that has today left us in a bind. 

 

3. America becomes the "breadbasket of the world."

- With food shortages in many countries, farmers increased production in order to meet the demands of India, China, Russia, and other countries.  Due to the world-wide economic slump in 1980, however, demand for American farm products declined and farmers were left with over-production and loans they could not pay back.  In an instant American went from having a heavy-hand and large influence in food industry in other countries to having barely none at all. 

 

     B. Soviet Union/Other Communist Regimes

1. Russia and America better relations and put an end to the cold war.

- The USSR realized that the only way to survive was through arms negotiations with the US and end its overextended budget.  Mikhail Gorbachev formed a comfortable relationship with Regan and Bush, reducing thenumber of nuclear weapons and ending manufacture of chemical weapons, easing trade restrictions between the two nations. 

 

2. The USSR collapses unto itself.

- With the introduction of more liberal policies in order to ease tensions with the US, the USSR unleashed forces of liberalism that could not be stopped.  In holding back conservatives who opposed new policies of reform, the USSR could not also resist those who wanted to establish democracy and capitalism.  Thus the Soviet Union fell apart into a collection of separate states, losing the supreme power it once maintained. 

 

3. Communism is denounced throughout the globe, specifically in Germany.

- The tearing down of the Berlin wall separating east and west Germany was a monumentous event symbolizing the end of a communist regime, and setting the precedence for the destruction of other communist regimes in Czechoslovakia (which became the Czech and Slovak republics), Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Albania.

 

Tearing down the Berlin wall.

 

     C. The Middle East

1. The United States reacts strongly to Arawu's invasion of Kuwait (for the threat they posed on taking over the oil industry we relied so heavily on) and persuades the Security Council to condemn the attack and endorse an embargo on trade with Iraq.

- So starts the beginning of today's ever-lasting conflict.  Bush entered into war with advanced weaponry and easily overwhelmed the Iraquis.  However, his eagerness to bring troops home left the conflict unfinished and within a year Saddam Hussein was as strong as he had been before. 

 

2. Peace is declared between Palestine and Israel.

- This was the first public step toward ending years of conflict and led to Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza strip as well as the West Bank of the Jordan River.  Though violence still continued, many made efforts to heal the old animosities.

 

     D. Latin America

1. The U.S. helps end the civil war in Nicaragua.

- Just as before, America finds itself involved in Latin American affairs such as the civil war within Nicaragua, in which contras (counterrevolutionaries trained and armed by the CIA) assumed imiltary initiative and mined harbors, violating international law.  Congress cut off military aid to the contras and condemned them, even though their work provided the hope of a new regime.  

 

2. The U.S. invades islands such as Grenada and Panama on the claim that it was for the benefit and safety of Americans 

-However, we still took the liberty to end drug trafficking and establish new democratic regimes in countries that sympathized with communism.  This was most likely NOT for the mere safety of Americans (though many were rescued from such islands), but probably due to our still present distrust of communism and facism and a growing sense of democratic righteousness (that this is the ONLY right form of government.

 

     E. Africa

1. America, though at first wary, takes a stand against the genocide in South Africa.

-The U.S. was at first cautious of entering into such an engagement for fear of opposing allies who controlled African territory and because of numerous American investments there.  With the civil rights movement, however, as well as the opposition to dictatorships, Americans called for taking a stronger stand.  This is in part ironic due to the wave of racism resurfacing at home.  Congress imposed sanctions, which greatly damaged North Africa's economy and forced many American businesses to leave.

 

 Nelson Mandela was a leading figure in promoting civil rights in Africa.

 

2. American tries to intervene in other turbulent areas, but does not succeed in creating peace.

-Somalia is one example of a country that America attempted to liberate and aid, but when met with violence, many people were reminded of Vietnam and demanded we pull out.  Clinton eventually agreed and left matters in Somalia more or less unresolved.  Though we did not invade Rwanda, many followed the conflict there on their TV's and were baffled by the violence, though chose to remain neutral and not intervene on humanitarian grounds. 

 

3. Americans are conflicted in terms of foreign affairs.

-Though committed to protecting and promotic democracy, Americans were still very wary of entering into another "Vietnam" and began to stress staying out of foreign affairs.  However, America's powerful political, military, and economic interests still forced it to play a key role in promoting international stability, especially with turbulence, genocide, and human rights violation surfacing in many nations.

 

II. Development of Markets

A. Conservativism encourages a direct interest in the American market as opposed to foreign markets.                              

- With the unreliable cycle of boom and bust in the economy, the government felt it necessary to envourage private enterprise and business, not only pulling itself out of the equation (and producing a more laissez-faire economy), but also stimulating the economy with a focus on American--as opposed to foreign--goods.  Competition abroad hampered this attempt.

         

B. Japan captures nearly a quarter of the American automobile market.

- Despite efforts to support American industry, as America became largely service-based, foreign countries greatly surpassed us in terms of industry.  Japan taking share in our automobile industry and securing a position in our country was only a forshadowing of the future industrial problems, most of which are being discovered only today as seen through bailouts and fear of failure in arguably the only industry America is legitimately still a part of.

          

 

III. Cultural Exchange

A. Racism begins to resurface stronger than before, forcing blacks and other minorities to compete for some of the equalities they had gained back in the 1960's.     

- Racism is largely an extension of conservativism, a return to the idea that the white, protestant male dominates over others, prevalent in many conservative eras prior to this.  Though racism itself was nearly always present, the laws passed and ideals visible vary with the age.  In more liberal periods, blacks, women, and minorities enjoyed more rights, where in more conservative eras, specifically this one, they found themselves supressed.  Affirmative action which was promoted during more liberal times, especially so by democrats, was put on hold and even reversed in some cases (Freeman vs. Pitts decision).

 

B. Latinos find it increasingly difficult to succeed not only in a conservative country, but in the the face of a cultural barrier unable to be broken by non-english-speaking nonwhites.     

- Though not as outwardly opressed as the blacks, Latinos found it difficult to make a place for themselves in a land that did not speak their language nor practice their customs.  Education was especially difficult, and very few Latinos graduated highschool let alone attended college.  Discrimination was present, and though there were more Latinos in office than had been in previous years, a strict cultural barrier remained largely unbroken, especially in such a conservative nation.      

 

C. Native Americans find themselves forced to assimilate into a capitalistic society in order to be self-sufficient.

- The "American" way of life involving capitalism and commercialism began to effect even those who did not wish to be effected.  Native Americans, who traditionally did not foster the capitalistic perspective, found that in order to make it in a corporate world, they had to join the tide of business-savvy entrepeneurs.  Still, many Native Americans remained poor.  The earlier conquests of the whites and their maltreatment of natives truly became present as the last of the surviving tribes either lost themselves to poverty or assimilated into white culture.     

 

D. Minorities make up at least half of the population.

- Minority make up varied from city to city, where the concentration of poor, nonwhites largely resided.  Unfortunately, the dense population of minorities in urban areas receiving low-paying jobs attributes to our stereotypes of minorities today.

 

 Unfortunately, many stereotypes and notions of racism arose from this era.

 

E. Population growth in the 1980's stemmed mostly from immigration. 

- A large percentage in immigrants came from Asian and Mexico/Latin America.  Not only a desire for jobs spurred immigration, however, but foreign crisises as well.  Vietnamese refugees uprooted by the war, as well as Cubans and Haitians escaping prosecution, all fled to America in hopes of a better life.  This spurred the problem that is still prevalent today of illegal immigration.

 

 

F. With immigrants came an influx of culture, skills, and a changing face of America.

- Throughout the century immigrants brought with them a new culture that added to the ever-changing face of America, supplying the diversity that America is today known for.  This era was no different in issuing in African Americans, Hispanics, Indians, Chinese, Philippinos, Koreans, and many more, each bringing with them a different skill set and cultural values to add to the American melting pot. 

 

G. Responses remain mixed toward the influx of immigrants.

- America took pains to accomodate such immigrants by introducing bilingual classrooms and stressing multiculturalism, diversity, and the ever-changing values that made up the larger American identity.  However, many Americans remained anti-immigrant, especially as jobs became scarce.  Their feelings echoed previous distrust and dislike of immigrants that arose from other eras such as the 1920's.  Many took steps in a separate direction to limit the arrival and rights of immigrants.

 

IV. Vocabulary 

Conservative - A return to more traditional values.  Preserves the "status quo."

Liberal - A move towards more radical and untraditional values.  Generally supports equality for all, freedom of speech, press, and thought.  Traditionally, liberalism stresses limitation in the power of government, but in this era, as in today's society, liberalism favors government interference in the market for the good of the people.

Affirmative Action - policies that take race, gender, or ethnicity into account in an attempt to promote equal opportunity

Freeman vs. Pitts - Granted Atlanta school board relief from desegregation

Immigration act of 1965 - Authorized the acceptance of immigrants impartially from all over the world

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 - Aimed to curb illegal immigration while offering amnesty to aliens who lived in the US since 1982

Immigration act of 1990 - Revised the level and preference system for admission of immigrants to the US

Communism - socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on common ownership and control of the means of production and property in general

Capitalism - economic system in which wealth, and the means of producing wealth, are privately owned and controlled rather than commonly, publicly, or state-owned

Prejudice - (Racial) making a judgment about a person based on their race, religion, class, etc., before knowing information about them

Contras - CIA-trained and armed counterrevolutionaries that attacked bases outside of Nicaragua

 

V. I.D.'s

Ronald Reagan

George Bush

Republican

Democrat

Berlin Wall

Cold War

Immigrants

Bill Clinton

Sandra Day O'Connor

Yasir Arafat

Rabin

Mikhail Gorbachev

Boris Yelstin

Nguyen Ninh and Nguyen Viet

Vietnam War

White collar vs. Blue Collar

Nelson Mandela