Chapter 26: Postwar Growth and Social Change

Michelle Kim, Ken Meyer, Tina Michel, Emma Ruddick-Ferrat

Introduction

• Ray Kroc after witnessing a successful hamburger stand decided to make one of his own. Kroc created a system that was fast efficient and clean and insisted all of his franchises were exactly the same. Ahead of his time, realized that building restaurants alongside highways was better for business. He also sold franchises to businessmen who gained a small profit while Kroc still made money from the franchise.
• Commentary: Ray Kroc based his business off of a model the McDonald family set up.  With a few modifications to the way his business was run, Kroc created a highly successful restaurant chain which brought in lots of money every year.
• Economic growth spurred by technological advances transforms patterns of work and daily life.
• Union movements pressed claims more successfully, workers entered equilibrium. However there were enormous gaps between the rich and poor.

Economic Boom

• After 1945 when servicemen returned home, a baby boom brought about population growth.
• Unexpected economic boom led to larger corporations that dominated the business world. As a result, unions grew.

The Thriving Peacetime Economy

• The nation experienced economic expansion - the US became richest country in the world. Almost 60% of all families in the country were part of middle class.
• During WWII auto industry expanded in postwar period; auto accessories became status symbol.
  • Commentary: The fancier the car, the higher the class you belong too, not unlike today.
• The development of a massive interstate highway system stimulated auto production and contributed to prosperity.
  • Commentary: Yet another resource the US became dependent on was oil and gas for cars.  However, the US became more dependent on these resources than other natural resources.  The entire country ran on oil and therefore in the future countries that have oil would become extremely powerful.  (An important point.  See commentary from Period 3, Chapter 26 for parallel thoughts, etc.)
• Increased house production contributed to economic growth. Much stimulus of house production came from GI bill of 1944.
• 1947, Congress passed National Security Act which created the Department of Defense and provided $13 bill defense budget.
  • Commentary: In order to prepare for future wars or attacks, the US increased their defense budget.  Also, major funding went to the armed forces which used the money to created technology needed to win wars and beat the communist threat

The Corporate Impact on American Life

• The government suspended antitrust actions during wartime production, so government contracts spurred expansion.  Because these contracts were given only to a few companies, oligopolies were allowed to form.
• The booming economy encouraged conglomerates, companies that held branches in many different industries.
  • Commentary: These conglomerates helped to prevent economic failure as they prevented against the collapse of individual businesses.  The reason for this is that these conglomerates were more stable than individual businesses as they were not subject to the fluctuation of needs in a single market.
• Corporations became interested in foreign markets and began to build plants overseas.
  • Commentary: This idea of overseas plants is still used today.  Known as outsourcing, the idea is that the company will not have to spend as much in these other countries as labor is cheaper.
• Firms sought managers to assess info, weigh market trends, and make rational decisions in order to maximize profits.  These managers were trained for such skills in business schools.

 Changing Work Patterns

• After World War II, a 150 year trend was reversed and America became a nation of goods producers, as opposed to a nation of service providers. The Majority of American workers held white-collar jobs. These white-collar workers were paid by salary served as corporate managers, office workers, salespeople, and teachers.
• Four day work week became common, and for the first time boredom became a "curse" by increased leisure time.
• However, huge corporations became very impersonal. Companies believed work was all-important with a standard code of conduct. The conforming was depicted in the popular novel and movie, The Man in the Flannel Suit, which preached teamwork and standards of conduct.

• Furthermore, many Americans were still blue-collar factory workers and worked on assembly lines. Blue-collar workers lives were more comfortable than ever due to union movements. However, many others held less appealing and less well-paying jobs, such as taxi drivers, farm laborers, dime-store sales clerks, which were less stable, less secure, and less interesting.
• Commentary: As American business changed, so did its workers. Progressing to a producer of goods, American workers fit into two main categories. White-collared workers experienced better conditions, held more leisure time, experienced job mobility, training and becoming positive assets to the company. Blue-collar workers also experienced better conditions; most of this can be accredited to the works of Unions.  Although the war was over and men came back to take up jobs, minorities were found to return back to work, including woman and teenagers.

The Union Movement at High Tide

• After WWII, two major things occur in the union movement:
  1. Union membership is now stronger than ever before.
  2. Layoffs occur in many factories as military orders are cancelled.
• The effect of these two together is that more strikes are called than ever.
• Commentary: Remember, this is the same generation that lived through the depression.  With government spending now easing off as the war is over, these people begin to fear another depression.  In this light, they strike to make sure, if this does occur, they have a job with a living wage.
• In the late 1940s, the unions back off of this confrontational strike approach as management and unions begin to recognize each other's needs.

                                                                    Concessions Made

• In the 1960s, unions fall. Do you mean "fall"?  Isn't it that the numbers of people in unions declines - and so union influence declines?  As you write, try to choose words which are accurate and precise in their meaning.
• Commentary: Labor felt that management was becoming fairer, so they began to ask why they still needed unions.

Agricultural Works in Trouble

• New technology further modernized farming, allowing for more specialization of crops and further spread of "agri-businesses."
• Family farms lose to bigger competition.
• Commentary: This trend is not new, nor will it stop.  In nearly every era, as technological gains are made, more family farms disappear. (Remember the family farm chapter in Fast Food Nation). Excellent point.

Demographic and Technological Trends 

Population Shifts

• Population increases due to two factors:
  1. A baby boom occurs. Commentary: The returning soldiers are eager to settle down and grow roots.
  2. "Miracle drugs" are developed that extend one's life. (Examples: Penicillin, Streptomycin, and the Polio Vaccine).
• This increase creates strains on the: Educational System, the Irrigation System, and other such areas.
• Westward Movement: Western cities and states began to surpass eastern ones in numbers.  The reasons for this shift are the following:
  • Soldier posted in the west during WWII wished to move back with their new families.
  • Many military contracts (Korean War) are given to western Corporations.
• Commentary: This westward movement is another example of an American trend.  It began with the first settlers, continues with Manifest Destiny, and continues here. Yup.

The New Suburbs

• While "metropolitan areas" increased in population, the truth is that it was the suburbs that expanded while the inner city lost much of its population. Within these suburbs:
  • William J. Levitt's model of mass-produced yet identical homes is copied across the nation.
  • Government-insured mortgages on houses continue from the New Deal.
• Commentary: Again, this is the generation that survived the depression.  As soon as they could, they had begun to save money.  It was with this money that they were able to afford such homes.
• Connections: 1. This is the beginning of the highway shopping centers presented in Fast Food Nation.

                              2. Randolph was one of the suburbs created from New York City.

The Environmental Impact

• As roads and highways advanced, so did the businesses around them, including fast-food restaurants, shopping centers, auto dealerships, advertising billboards, and suburban housing developments. Without any real planning, the commercial establishments encompassed almost every city, destroying some of the nation's most beautiful rural areas as it served the suburban population.
• As a response to the newly cluttered lands, muckraking books, such as God's Own Junkyard: The Planned Deterioration of America's Landscape by Peter Blake, attacked the environmental practices of the 1950s. However, despite attempts, most Americans held ignorance to the environmental problems that they caused. Earlier that century, Americans had been concerned with conservation and efficiency, before turning their attention to the preservation of grasslands, soils, and game. 
• Ironically, the prosperity that the unsightly highway strips created allowed more Americans to appreciate the natural environment as parts of the rising standard of living. The shorter work week created more free time and longer vacations. By 1950, the majority of laborers worked a 40 hour week, and 60 percent of nonagricultural workers enjoyed paid vacation, while in the 1930s, few workers enjoyed holidays. As they began to explore mountains, rivers, and shores for recreation, they also began to wonder how to protect them.
• In 1958, steps were finally being taken to protect the environment, beginning with the National Outdoor Recreation Review Commission, which was passed by Congress as the first look into environmental issues. In the next decade, other Acts followed, such as the National Wilderness Preservation Act in 1964, the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, and a National Trails Act in 1968. The contrast of open space to their urban developments was finally recognized.
• Commentary: As businesses grew and the economy prospered, Americans found themselves with more leisure time. Though the highway lining businesses attracted customers, it also attracted critics. As more recreational time increased, so did the curiosity and respect for nature. Congress passed Acts to preserve the environment so it can be enjoyed for generations. Don't forget that President Theodore Roosevelt spearheaded CONSERVATION, back in the early 1900s...the environmental issues of this era mark a shift toward PRESERVATION...the difference is crucial.

Technology Supreme

•  Over the Post War years, there was a rapid technology change, supported by the government as well as big businesses. While some projects progressed from war research, such as the use of atomic energy, the advent of the Cold War caused a greater government involvement in research and development. The National Institutes of Health in 1948 was passed to coordinate medical research while the National Science Foundation in 1950 was the funding basis of research. As fear increased, the government funded the Atomic Energy Commission in 1946, and set up the Department of Defense in 1947. From large research universities, scientists applied their research, developing nuclear weapons, jet planes, satellites, and products that aided military research.
• Computers were a result and advocator of the technological development. While wartime advances required large calculations, the postwar machines housed internal instructions and memories, resulting in increased efficiency and accuracy. In 1946, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator were built in the University of Pennsylvania. In less then half a second, the machine was able to multiply 97,397 by itself 5,000 times.
• As the computer became faster and more reliable, it transformed American society. The development of the transistor by scientists as Bell Laboratories allowed a more sophisticated from of space exploration, while other computers supported businesses, such as airlines and hotels. With this new dependency on computers for accounting and controlling inventories, the new technology became high in demand.
• However, mechanization, not a new trend, became more wide spread as computers and machines took the jobs of both skilled and unskilled workers.
• Commentary: As fear increased during the Cold War, technology became an important aspect in American life. Under pressure, the government funded the progress in technology, which fabricated and fueled the entire movement. Advances, such as the computer, helped industries, but hindered employment as it took jobs of workers. The new era, with all the technology and advancements, however, looked promising to Americans. Was this, in the end, a false promise?  Would you say the hopes and dreams of this era ended up coming true - or not?  This seems like a worthy topic for comment...

The Consumer Culture

•  The technology that powered computers, such as the transistors, could power other gadgets for personal use, such as the hearing aid.
• The television developed in the 1930s and was a major influenced on Post World War II Americans. By 1960, three quarters of all American families owned at least one television set. The average family watched five hours each day, tuning into shows the Mickey Mouse Club and watching Elvis play on his guitar. 
• By the end of the 1950s, most American families had at least one car, as well as refrigerators, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. Even less essential devices were becoming popular, like electric can openers.
• Consumer credit became increasingly popular, and the American economy began to depend on it. Credit cards encouraged the purchase of smaller goods, while installment plans made bigger purchases, such as cars, more manageable. The Diner's Card, one of the first credit cards, made eating out easier, followed by the American Express Card. As more cards became available, the total private indebtedness increased from $8.4 billion in 1946 to $113.2 billion in 1968.
• After the economy collapsed in the 1930s, it revived to convinced unsure consumers to buy. Television presented a new sophisticated approach to advertisement.  Where radios could only describe products, televisions can show them in work. Writers like Vance Packard defended consumerism in his book, The Hidden Persuaders.  After years of poverty and sacrifices during the war, the Americans welcomed their new-found leisure time.
• Commentary: As the stable economy prospered (Can an economy prosper?  Be more specific), the lives of Americans improved. New ideas, such as the credit card, shaped society as it increased personal indebtedness, convinced consumers to buy, and further fueled the economy. Advertisements on the television also convinced costumers to buy the products. The fear of the Cold War, however, grew, and persuaded families to conform, buying similar items.

Consensus and Conformity

Conformity in School and Religious Life

•  Students of all ages conformed during the 1950s. While elementary student watched the same television shows and wanted the same toys, college students joined fraternities and sororities.  Americans discovered a shared religious sense and returned to their churches. By the end of the 1950s, 95 percent of all Americans were associated with some religious group.
• During the Cold War, the church attendance challenged the "godless communism" with speakers such as Clergyman Billy James Hargis and Evangelist Billy Graham to promote patriotism and anti-Communist feelings through fiery speeches over the radio, television, and films.
• Worldwide efforts became a part of religions now as well. The first World Council of Churches meeting in Amsterdam was in 1948, which drew attention to modern Catholics. In the 1960s, Pope John XXIII converted the Vatican Ecumenical Council to reform the church, which made traditions more accessible. Judaism, likewise, also became more accessible as new synagogues were built in suburban areas, and many followed the Reform of Conservative practices, rather than Orthodox. This also allowed families to conform together, claiming that families that pray together, stay together. Congress added "Under God" to the Pledge of Alliance, and "In God We Trust" to the currency to unite the people. However, the belief seemed superficial. Though 80 percent of responses in a public poll indicated that the Bible revealed God's word, only 35 percent were able to name the four gospels.
• Commentary: As the need to conform grew out of fear, Americans sought groups with similar views to their own. Religious groups made themselves more accessible to the masses. More churches and synagogues were built, as well as strict Orthodox religions were modified to fit more people. The Cold War instilled a fear even in the youth to want to belong to a group, affecting all ages. The lack of individuality seemed safer during the Cold War. (See my comments in the Period 3, Chp. 26 work - regarding religious attitudes of this era.)

Back to the Kitchen

• During WWII, women worked and left their prior gender roles; however, in the 1950s after the war ended, women reluctantly reassumed their prewar gender roles as housewives and caretakers. When men came back from the war, they wanted their family life to "go back to normal." Media supported the men's view (Life magazine, Benjamin Spock's Baby and Child Care, actress Doris Day).
• Still, many women, including married women, held jobs, though they usually received very low pay and no promotions. Black women also held jobs, received income, and closed the income gap between black women and white women.
• Comfort, sharing, and openness were emphasized in family life and homes.
• Sexuality was a taboo subject, finally put out in the open with help from Kinsey's studies, Marilyn Monroe, and Playboy.
• Commentary: Although it seems as though life after the war was settling back into its old patterns, one can see the great changes brewing underneath. Now that women have gotten their taste of independence and what working is like, they will not easily revert back to their conforming roles as housewives. Women start to show their individuality in ways that will surprise men. The family is still central to life, but there is a new openness that was not present in prior years. American society itself is also starting to become more open as the issue of sex is brought to the open and discussed. Great changes are in the works for gender roles and expectations, and these changes will undoubtedly be passed on to the next generation. Yup.

Recovering the Past: Clothing

• Clothing throughout the ages has changed and reflects society, class, age, and sex.
• 1920s - People dressed like children: playful, free, and "boyish"
• 1930s - Clothing became more somber; clothes were of heavier material and darker colors.
• 1940s - Working women wore overalls but femininely (Rosie the Riveter). In postwar years, men dressed in a business-like manner while his wife was sophisticatedly dressed.
• 1960s - People dressed in casual clothes and bright colors, in a more youthful manner.
• Commentary: One can really understand the mood and happenings of a certain time period just by looking at how the people of the age dressed. Also, just by observing the clothing, one can determine certain trends; happier times called for more playful, loose clothing while serious times called for darker, heavier clothes.  You've explained this well...

Cultural Rebels

• Many, especially young people (the "beat generation", rebelled against society's values and conformity, emphasizing spontaneity, spirituality, and intuition.
• Salinger's Catcher in the Rye - about a boy's struggle to keep his individuality and independence in spite of pressures
• The "beats" were overly sexual, popularized marijuana, and rejected materialism.
  • Ginsberg's "Howl" - a critique on mechanized society
• Popularity of Salinger & Ginsberg was largely due to a the revolution in book publishing and a greater population being educated and appreciating literature: the "paperback revolution"
• Rock 'n roll music, hated by adults but loved by the "beat generation," was led by Elvis Presley.
• Painters, led by Jackson Pollock and the "New York School," rebelled by becoming "abstract impressionists and rejecting the classic European style of art.
• Commentary: The brewing change mentioned in the "Back to the Kitchen" section is really evident in this section. While adults were eager to conform to the typical life of a working father, housewife, and two children, the youthful "beat generation" wanted nothing to do with this mechanized lifestyle. They broke out of the mold in a big way, having sex, doing drugs, and listening to rock 'n roll - things that their parents would not even be able to think of. The "paperback revolution" led way for these new rebellious thoughts to be written down and produced to the masses. Adults struggled to support their families and retain some sense of stability, but their children rejected this materialism and rather emphasized the individual. The great chasm shown between the older generation and the younger generation foreshadows greater social changes for the future.

The Other America

Poverty Amid Affluence

• Despite the wealth of much of the country, many people lived in poverty. Economic growth favored the upper and middle classes.

• Commentary: Because the upper and middle classes grew, the gap between the rich and the poor widened. This trend is one mirrored in much of American history. This gap has been debated over by many political parties.  These debates sparked many economic policies and laws that would allow this gap to either grow, as it does here, or shrink.
• The Federal Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 40 million people lived below these levels

Hard Times for African Americans

• As southern "King Cotton" loses its foothold in the world due to the rise of synthetics, millions of blacks lose their jobs.
  • Movement to cities, both Southern and Northern, continues.  Commentary: Here lies another continuing American trend. Blacks began to move northward during slave times, and they began to move to cities during the "New South" movement.
  • The "Black Ghetto" becomes a staple of the city.
    • Despite many modern comforts not had in the fields, these slums were littered with filth and were largely uncared for.
    • However, if they can afford to move elsewhere, they are often booted out on racial terms.
• A new pattern of "broken homes" begins for blacks.  Commentary: On the other hand, this pattern is not unique to the black community.  From this point on, divorce in all communities becomes a growing pattern.  True, but, in the black community (in the U.S.) this has risen to almost epidemic levels.  From a cultural and societal perspective (not to mention a moral/ethical one), the fact that such a high number of black Americans are being raised without both "mom" and "dad" in the home has been devastating.  (Do some research on this!)  On the other hand, this same community has rejected the "quick fix" of abortion - despite the propaganda suggesting that abortion is necessary for the "poor" (which is usually "code" for black, hispanic, etc.), statistically, it is not poor minorities who are making use of "the abortion option" in this country, but, in fact, middle-to-upper-class whites.
• Black communities (Churches, Media Forms, and more) grew in spite of the ghettos.

Minorities on the Fringe

• Latino immigrants suffered discrimination but kept a strong sense of group identity because of this suffering.
• Chicanos (Mexican Americans) also suffered discrimination. They were helpers on American farms.
  • Migratory Labor Agreement: millions of Mexicans came to the US as temporary helpers and were expected to leave afterwards. Many stayed illegally.
  • Operation Wetback: over 1 million Mexicans were deported, and all Chicanos found themselves vulnerable to deportation as well.
  • The Migratory Labor Agreement is reinstated though, because Americans relied deeply on the cheap labor.
• Puerto Rico's sugarcane industry became more mechanized, so many Puerto Ricans came to New York. Their new "capital" was El Barrio in East Harlem, characterized by salsa music and small grocery stores.
• Native Americans had a difficult time adjusting to technological advances. They started to purchase electronic devices as their reservations got electricity. Those who moved to cities also had a hard time adjusting, because they were used to the old ways. Also, Native Americans still suffered snubbing from white Americans.
• Commentary: The more races there are added to the "melting pot," the more discrimination there is. Even after being through two World Wars, Americans still cannot accept and continue to discriminate against Latinos and Puerto Ricans. Discrimination from white Americans obviously hurts the immigrants, but it brings a sense of unity to each group. Therefore, the joke (is that the word?) that America is really a "salad" and not a "melting pot" is true. The tomatoes stay with the tomatoes while the lettuce stick with the lettuce: there is not such thing as a tomatucce. Also, white Americans continue to misunderstand the true desires of Native Americans, even after 300 years of dealing with them. On the whole, white Americans continue to isolate themselves from other races and make the "American dream" nearly impossible for immigrants to attain.  Well, let's be somewhat cautious about over-generalizing here.  In fact, we see success-stories pop-up again and again - for a wide variety of races, ethnic groups, immigrant groups, etc.  Isn't it, rather, that the nature of American society makes if tough to "make it" regardless?  Isn't some of the problem linked to capitalism and its "bottom-line" of profit?  I do not mean to suggest that there are no tensions between races and ethnic groups!  Rather, that the problems various minority groups face in America seems to be about more than "mere race".  Isn't there plenty of evidence that many, many Americans have moved beyond race - and actively seek to see people as individuals, first and foremost?  And, if this is true, don't we need to look beyond THAT issue to some other issues to explain the material-struggles facing so many?  Consider the issues raised during the Progressive Era?  Consider (as you already have, elsewhere) Fast Food Nation's critique of "the American way"...isn't this evidence of a broader problem?! 

Conclusion

• The United States was stable and secure, and though there were a few moments of recessions, the economy and business boomed, raising the standard of living.
• New suburban property owners enjoyed the benefits of shopping centers, fast food restaurants, and other material manifestations.
• Some Americans didn't enjoy the prosperity, such as African Americans who faced discrimination and other minorities, and seeds for the Civil Movement were planted.
• The divorce rate increased as one third of all 1950s marriages broke apart.
• The materialism of the United States started to be criticized; however healthy and comfortable, Americans expected growth ahead.

Vocabulary, IDs, and Geography

Vocabulary

• Oligopoly: domination of a given industry by a few firms
• Conglomerate: firms that diversified with holdings in a variety of industries.
• Consumer credit: total private indebtedness
• Disposable income: money available to a family to "throw away" on unnecessary but wanted items and services
• Blue-collar workers: worked on assembly lines and made goods others enjoyed: ex. factory workers. They dreamed the "American dream" of a suburban lifestyle, but they lived comfortably in the era due to the union movement.
• White-collar workers: paid by salary rather than the hour: ex. teachers, salespeople. office workers, corporate managers. They gained a reputation as "dressing, thinking, and acting the same." Although they made more money, it came at the price of an impersonal and bureaucratic work environment.

IDs

• Ray Kroc (McDonald's)
• President Dwight Eisenhower
• David Lawrence
• Ford Motor Company
• William H. Whyte
• C. Wright Mills
• American Federation of Labor (AFL)
• Congress of Industrial Organization (CIO)
• General Motors
• Cost-of-living-adjustment (COLA)
• George Meany
• Penicillin & streptomycin
• John Brooks
• William J. Levitt
• Don M. Casto
• Atomic Energy Commission
• Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
• Bell Laboratories
• Diner's Club, American Express, and BankAmericard

• Vance Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders

• Clergyman Billy James Hargis 

• Evangelist Billy Graham
• World Council of Churches
• Vatican Ecumenical Council (Pope John XXIII)
• “In God We Trust”
• Life Magazine’s “The American Woman’s Dilemma”
• Benjamin Spock’s Baby and Child Care
• Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique
• Alfred C. Kinsey’s Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
• Marilyn Monroe
• Playboy Magazine
• J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye
• Jack Kerouac’s On the Road
• Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl”
• Elvis Presley
• Jackson Pollock
• Michael Harrington’s The Other America
• James Baldwin’s Nobody Knows My Name
• Jet Magazine
• Chicano
• Barrio
• Bracero
• Guillermo Cotto-Thorner’s Tropico en Manhattan

Geography

• Missouri
• Massachusetts
• Iowa
• Ohio
• Monroe Park
• University of Wisconsin
• Baltimore
• Florida
• California
• Huston, Texas
• Los Angeles
• New York
• Suburbs: Scarborough, Peppermill Village, Woodbury Knoll
• Levittown, New York
• University of Pennsylvania
• Mississippi
• Chicago
• Detroit
• Mexico
• Phoenix, Arizona
• Puerto Rico
• Cuba
• San Bernardino, California

Excellent work. 93/A.

However, I'd like to see some links put into the text though - why not make use of the technology available, and point your readers toward other resources?  Also, though it probably sounds "ultra-picky"...there are two "presentation issues" your group ought to pay more attention to:

1.  punctuation - and consistency of use.  Some sentences and phrases end with "."; some just end with the last word and no punctuation. (Edit!)

2.  Word choice.  This is a formal presentation of information and commentary.  Your choice of words ought to reflect that - and in several places your descriptions were confusing because your words were vague or bordering on slang...