CHAPTER 30: THE REVIVAL OF CONSERVATISM

James Garofalo, Chris Demetriou, Zach Beecher, Dan Park, Pete Horgan, Mike Gill

 

The New Politics

• Conservatives believed heavily in Thomas Jefferson’s philosophy, “That government is best which governs least.”

• Conservatives hoped to downsize government, reduce the tax burden, and allow more competition in the financial world by cutting back on regulations of businesses. 

• Conservatives believed that individual initiative and private enterprise were the strengths of the United States.

• The Conservative philosophy was incredibly popular because of the promise of success to those who worked hard in the economy. 

• Middle-class Americans were also attracted because of the common belief that they were being left behind in the nation’s new commitment to protecting minorities. 

• Additionally, the conservative philosophy was a foundation for a new revival of basic social and religious values that seemed to some citizens were eroding with rising divorce rates, abortion, homosexuality, and the media’s preoccupation with sex and violence. 

• Milton Friedman, of the University of Chicago, urged for the free play of market forces and a sharp restriction of government activism in regulating the economy.

• Senator Jesse Helms was aggressively active against forms of expression he deemed pornographic and pushed for a more limited Federal government.

• Some people were attracted to the conservatives because they believed that they had fell victim to the reverse racism of the Democratic Party that instituted affirmative action, job quotas, and busing.

• Religious Fundamentalists who advocated a more direct interpretation of the Scriptures also were a major portion of the Conservative Party base. They wanted to return religion as a major factor in the American life.

• These Fundamentalists ranged from various religious groups but were all generally concerned with sexual permissiveness, gay rights, and the increasing number of women outside the home, increases in crime, and the increase in drug use. 

• Reverend Jerry Falwell founded the Moral Majority and became a demagogue of conservative ideals as a television evangelist.  Using funds collected, the Moral Majority would donate and support candidates that supported conservative ideals.  The Moral Majority gave rise to an even more powerful group, the Christian Coalition.

• Conservative politicians were more adept at the new political arena.  They became skilled with “sound bites” and utilized new forms of mass communication such as the e-mail, internet, and fax to mobilize their constituents. 

• Conservatives relied heavily on negative campaigning that attacked the character of their opponent.  Polls became more heavily relied upon in order to help the politician adapt to the wants and needs of the voters.  “Spin Doctors” also appeared on campaigns to help put a positive light on the statements of a candidate.  Fundraising for campaigns was also a new talent of the Conservative Party.

• As a result cynicism towards politics grew with Americans and voters turned out in record low numbers.

  • It is remarkable to see the almost complete reversal of political ideology amongst the people from the 60s and 70s to the 80s, now worrying over whether the needs of the minority ruled the majority.  But it is most interesting that at this period, politics took a change for the worse.  A candidate went from being judged on the issues to being judged on their image.  Politicians are packages that are sold to the voter now, no longer a candidate of the issues.  This still affects the cynicism we see in American voters to this day, only with recent promises of changing the status quo Washington have voters begun to once again emerge in larger numbers.   

Conservative Leadership

• Ronald Reagan was the man responsible for the success of conservative cause.

• Reagan was extremely popular with conservatives because he wished to downsize the Federal government while increasing the power and size of the military.

• In his election against incumbent Jimmy Carter, Reagan won 51% of the popular vote with a 489 to 49 Electoral College advantage. 

• In his reelection in 1984 versus Walter Mondale, Reagan won 59% of the popular vote carrying every state except Minnesota. 

• Reagan enjoyed an incredible amount of popularity, despite corruption within his administration

• George H. W. Bush (Reagan’s Vice President) won a mudslinging election against Michael Dukakis in 1988, winning 54% of the popular vote.

• Republicans lost Presidency in 1992 but gained control of Congress

• Robert Dole (Majority Leader of the Senate) and Newt Gingrich (Speaker of the House) were the new leaders of the conservative movement

  • The fact that Reagan was so popular through everything truly speaks to the importance of communication for a President.  Reagan was not the perfect President but because he presented himself so effectively to the people, they loved him.  Nothing stuck to him or his approval ratings, regardless of the severity of the incident.  Communication for Presidents is essential to gaining public approval and support. 

Republican Policies at Home

• Reagan implemented an economic policy based on supply-side economics, believing that by reducing taxes the government could encourage business expansion leading to a larger supply of goods which would stimulate the entire economy, nicknamed “Reaganomics”

• All citizens enjoyed tax relief, but the rich gained the most, while poverty level Americans did not benefit at all.

• Reagan cut taxes while increasing the defense expenditures, thus increasing the budget deficit to $290 billion by the end of Bush’s presidency

• The Federal Debt was $4.4 trillion in 1992, compared to $909 billion in 1980

• In 1986 Reagan and Congress passed a sweeping tax reform law that lowered rates, simplified brackets, and closed loopholes to expand the tax base. This law enabled low-income Americans to be treated more fairly.  Rich Americans benefited the most.

•  Reagan began cutting what he believed to be unnecessary programs to support his tax cuts. His Administration also attacked and went directly against many of the social policy decisions of the Johnson Administration’s “Great Society.”

• Reagan was committed to an arms build-up and sought $1.5 trillion for the military budget

• Reagan was committed to the idea of the “New Federalism,” shifting the power from the Federal government to the State governments. This policy caused near-bankruptcy in several states and municipalities because they were forced to fund formerly federally funded programs.

• Bush was faced with the savings and loan industry, which ultimately forced Congress to bail out the entire industry. 

• Republican policy widened the gap between rich and poor.
• The 1980s saw a tremendous leap in wealth of upper class Americans
• The net worth of the Forbes magazine 400 richest Americans nearly tripled between 1981 and 1989

• • Many middle and lower class citizens struggled to make ends meet

    • Many were hurting financially more than they had since the Great Depression

  • Millions of people from foreclosed farmers to laid-off industrial workers were among those struggling financially

  • Overall it seems that the Republicans merely accomplished creating a larger economic problem then the Democrats with the great society.  It seems as if the American political system always works in polarizing opinions.  In the 60s and 70s, the American government supported those who could not support themselves.  Yet in the 80s, there is no moderate change in political thought, but a radical and polar opposite opinion to those of the previous decades.  It seems as if the political system of today and yesterday fails to find a middle ground to evaluate and deal with issues.  It is either one or the other.  This is perfectly exemplified through the Democrat’s “Great Society” to the Republican era of deregulation, tax cuts, and a widening gap between the rich and the poor.

Liberal Interlude

• Arkansas governor Bill Clinton won the Democratic nomination
• Clinton ran against President George Bush and H. Ross Perot
• Candidates made appearances on talk shows and television programs like “Larry King Live” and “60 Minutes”
• Clinton appeared on the “Arsenio Hall Show” and also appeared on MTV
• Clinton won the election with 43% of the popular vote to Bush's 38% and Perot's 19%
• Clinton quickly demonstrated how the country was shifting directions
• He displayed many of these changes in his Cabinet nominations
• Nominees included four women, four African Americans and two Latinos
• Gained Senate ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
• Secured passage of a crime bill banning 19 different assault weapons
• Also wanted health care reform but did not get approval
• Clinton's arrival in office marked the beginning of a period of change in the nation. Clinton had many new proposals that differed from what the country was accustomed to with Bush in office. Also, the reliance on the electronic market place reoriented American campaign politics. When Clinton become president he made no secret of the fact that he wanted to make changes. In his inaugural address Clinton stated, "a new season of American renewal has begun."

 

Conservative Resurgence

• At the midterm elections in 1994, Republicans swept control of both the Senate and the House
  • Many of the strongest, most senior representatives lost their seats including Speaker Thomas Foley
• The 104^th Congress moved aggressively to make good on its promises
• Congress made agressive moves to make cuts which would soon lead to problems in Congress
• Congress wanted to eliminate three cabinet departments and new Speaker Newt Gingrich fought with Clinton over the size of the cuts
  • As the 1996 election approached, Newt Gingrich found himself out of favor as millions of Americans began to realize that they would suffer from the cuts more aggressive Republicans sought. This feeling from most Americans at this time would help push Clinton towards a second term.

 

 

A Second Term for Clinton

• Robert Dole ran a lackluster campaign against Clinton in 1996
• Clinton won the election with 49% of the popular vote to Dole’s 41% and Perot’s 8%
  • At this point voters around the country seemed willing to support Clinton, but not to give him the blanket mandate he sought. Voters voiced their opposition in California when they approved Proposition 209 prohibiting preferential treatment based on gender or race.

 

Slowdown in the Struggle for Civil Rights

• Ronald Reagan opposed busing to achieve racial balance
  • Reagan directed the Internal Revenue Services to cease banning tax exemptions for private schools that discriminated against blacks
    • This was later overturned by the Supreme Court
  • Launched an assault on Civil Rights Commission and hampered its effectiveness
• As a result of Reagan’s work federal courts stopped pushing for school integration
• Supreme Court’s Freeman vs. Pitts decision in 1992 granted an Atlanta school board relief from desegregation order
• In 1995, courts ruled that colleges and universities were prohibited from awarding special scholarships to African Americans and other minorities
• In 1994 conservatives launched an attack on policy giving preferential treatment to groups that had suffered discrimination in the past
• African Americans won political races in Virginia, and also won mayoral elections in major cities
  • Despite the progress made by African Americans at this time, whites and blacks remained at odds. Right when it appeared that African Americans were progressing in society, something would happen to shoot them right back down again. Society had shown signs of progress towards racial equality at this point but nothing had truly come of it.

 

 

Obstacles to Women’s Rights

• In 1981, President Reagan appointed Sandra Day O’Connor as the first woman Supreme Court justice.
• Most women still had lower paying jobs such as being a waitress or secretary
  • Even when women took jobs previously held by men they rarely got promotions to higher levels in a business
  • Child birth and family responsibilities often impeded advancement
• There was a dedicated conservative campaign against abortion although it still remained legal
• In Supreme Court Case Webster vs. Reproductive Health Services, it was ruled that abortion was legal but states could impose further restrictions
• In 1992, Supreme Court Case Planned Parenthood vs. Casey reaffirmed what was previously ruled but made it more difficult to obtain an abortion
  • In the workplace and business community women began to become more respected. Many became aware of inappropriate behavior that could no longer be tolerated. Women made many strides to become more equal to men at this time and they definitely began to accomplish this goal at this time.

 

The Limited Commitment to Latino Rights

• Latinos had a difficult time getting through high school and those that did graduate rarely completed college
• Number of Latinos holding office increased 3.5% nationwide from 1986 to 1987
• Many Latinos remained out of work and found that when they did try to find work they were discriminated against
  • Latinos were often asked for their alien card to make sure that they were in the country legally. This discrimination hampered their efforts to not only keep jobs and advance in them but to simply secure a job in the United States.

 

Continuing Problems for Native Americans

• Native Americans struggled to find jobs
  • Many refused to adopt the capitalist ethos that were necessary to obtain a job
• Arguably the most successful Native Americans were the Pequots who built a casino in Connecticut and grossed more than $800 million.
  • While some tribes began to become entrepreneurs themselves, many others refused to change the way they lived. As a result, Native Americans were the nation’s poorest group at the time.

 

Pressures on the Environmental Movement

• The pressures of the environmentalists began to have a major effect on presidential elections and many policies that were passed. Clinton clearly spent more time addressing the issues of the environment and as a result received much more positive feedback from the people than past presidents like Reagan and Bush.

• Enviornmentalists were discouraged by the direction of public policy in the 80s and 90s

• The Department of the Interior opened forest lands and wilderness areas with no concern for preserving the natural environment

• George Bush seemed more sympathetic to the environment than Reagan

  • Bush signed a clean air legislation in 1992

  • However, Bush stood alone as 99 other heads of state signed a biological diversity treaty and he refused to sign

• Clinton brought about a new thinking to the problems of the environment

  • Clinton’s Vice President was Al Gore, a committed environmentalist

 

The Changing Nature of Work

• Computers and automation drastically changed how people worked and what jobs required human employees
• Americans feel as though computers bring disadvantages such as fatigue and the frustration of staring at a screen all day, but the nation as a whole continues to work more hours
  • This is a very crucial point for the modernization and automation of the workplace. Computers are becoming more common, and available jobs are drastically changing. Jobs formerly requiring physical labor are being replaced by jobs for people who can run machines to do the same tasks. Americans are spending more hours at work, and stress is increasing. Add to that the stress of women who try to hold a job and keep the household running, and there is a nation-wide feeling of stress and change that comes with the changing nature of work.

The Shift to a Service Economy

• As goods-producing jobs become less common, more Americans became involved in the service industry
• United States begins to loose world industrial power
  • American economy began to drastically change during this time. As automation reduced the need for goods producers, most people became employees of service industries. Also, national spending policies added to the decline of the economy. Spending abroad and war funding only hurt the situation, and as European and Asian countries began to have strengthening economies, the United States started to slip from its former powerful position. The combination of many factors is what led the U.S. to decline economically.

Workers in Transition

• Number of farmers continued to decline, making industrial farmers more profitable

• Workers who lost jobs due to automation had trouble finding new work
• Unions weakened
• In addition to the shift to more service workers, the amount of young and female workers made for a diverse and hard to organize group.
  • This again is due to change in technology. Big farms were more successful due to mechanical tools and things like pesticides and fertilizers, putting small farms out of business. This is a perfect demonstration of the changing face of the country brought on by industrialization.

The Roller Coaster Economy

• Around 1984, the economy began to improve
• In general, life was more expensive for young Americans 

• The American economy fell into a new, drastic boom and bust cycle
• Under Carter, the nation began to fall into a drastic recession
• This led to large numbers of business failures
• Struggling with inflation, foreign competition (such as that in the automobile industry) and increase in unemployment led to this drastic dip in the economy in the early 1980s.
• This improvement was mainly seen, however, in the upper classes. There were still many unemployed Americans. People were forced to move out of their homes because they could no longer afford the life they once could. Although on the surface things seemed to be improving, in reality America was still struggling to pull out of the slump.
  • Again, these drastic economical changes can be linked to the changing workplace, foreign economies, and government spending policies. Struggling to deal with debt, many Americans had to deal with increased interest rates. However, these increased rates led to new economical problems, creating a vicious cycle.
• The economy finally began to fully recover in the earl 1990s

 

Urban and Suburban Shifts

• Number of minorities in America increased
• As families moved to suburbs, minorities filled cities
• Cities became poorer and minorities struggled for work
  • This trend is clearly an outline of what we see today, and shows us how history has evolved. As more immigrants come to the country, less work is available for them. American-born whites move to the suburbs and secure middle class lifestyles, leaving the cities open for minority groups. As these minority groups become more crammed and compete for work, their standard of life decreases. This pattern started during this time and continues still today.

Western Development

• Modernization hits west: increased populations and more urbanized areas (ex: California’s rapid growth)
  • The movement from east to west seems to be a common trend in U.S. history. We saw the westward expansion craze in the age of Manifest Destiny, and we see it again here as urbanization heads westward. Perhaps this is simply because the nation wished to bring all of the states up to this modern level, or perhaps it has something to do with the over crowding and lack of jobs in the east, leading foreigners, minorities, and therefore eager business entrepreneurs to move west.

The New Pilgrims

•    Large wave of immigration due to the passing of the Immigration Act of 1965

• Fleeing persecution, millions of Latinos fled to the United States illegally

• Estimation of 12 million illegal foreigners

• 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control act was passed

  • Aimed to control illegal immigration while also granting amnesty to aliens who had lived in the United States since 1982

• More than 10 million immigrants who arrived between 1976 and 1990 belonged to different economic classes

• In the 1980’s, the number of Asians in the country doubled and made up half of the immigrants by the end of the century

• The Asian population was labeled by media as a “model minority”

• In the 1970s and 1980s, America’s efforts to help immigrants coincided with still-intact social assistance programs of the liberal welfare state.

• Proposition 187 required teachers and clinic doctors to deny assistance to illegal aliens and to report them to police

  • This is the very start of the immigration problem for the United States.  This problem is now very heated between political parties because the numbers of illegal immigrants are becoming huge.  This is where the government should have put their foot down to yield the amount of immigrants being let into the country.  This very well could have helped us today with the still growing problem of illegal immigrants.

 

Growing Up

• In the mid 1970s, the birthrate slowed down

  • The rate was now 16 births per 1000 people

• In the late 1970s, only 7% of families matched the stereotypical pattern of a breadwinning dad, homemaker mom, and two children.

• Divorces sky-rocketed in 1980 with nearly 1.2 million granted divorces

  • For each 1000 marriages, there were 490 divorces

• By 1990, 25% of children lived in a house headed by either one woman or one man

• During hard times for the working class, new children created problems

  • Another mouth could set a family into bankruptcy

• In 1982, the death rate for most Americans had dropped significantly over a 30-year- period and it continued to drop though the 80s

• AIDS was discovered in 1981 and complicated lives

• It struck the drug users and the homosexual population much more greatly in the beginning, then  it soon spread to the heterosexual group as well

• AIDS became the leading cause of death for people between the ages of 25 and 44

• The U.S. surgeon general mailed a brochure “Understanding AIDS,” to every house

  • It is interesting to see the statistics behind the beginning of a new era. These statistics show the start of a new age that now includes updated viruses, divorce, and an increase in murder and car accidents.  Also, the discovery of AIDS is a huge development for 1981 and it has now become one of the most dreaded diseases.

 

Growing Old

• Between 1900 and 1980, the population of the country tripled
• In the 1980’s, the number of Americans over 75 grew 25%
• Due to Medicare, the life expectancy was changed from 47 to 74 years.
• Many elderly wanted to continue working and disobey mandatory retirement laws which helped raise new issues for the nations economy
• Legislation changed mandatory retirement from 65 to 70 in 1978
• As more Americans retired, the government could not generate the money needed to pay without the assistance from the general government feud.
• Along with the greater elderly population, Alzheimer’s disease was increasingly suffered but Americans
• Ronald Reagan suffered from this disease
• The decision of what to do with the retired came into question
• With more working women, the usual of just bringing the parent into your own household, made this difficult
  • The increase of life expectancy is a great relief for the country.  The difference between 47 and 75 is a huge one and it is much nicer knowing that you are able to survive that much longer due to advancements.  This now generates a larger elderly population and now opens up a new business that is needed, retirement homes, which could help to lower the amount of lost jobs. 

Growing Poor

• Despite the increase of wealth by already rich families, many were growing poorer
• 32 million people were below the poverty line

• • An income lower than $13,000 for a family of four

• The net worth of a white household was 12x greater than that of a black household

• 8x greater than a typical Latino household

• 1980s, homeless quadrupled

• In 1990, at one point or another within the last 5 years, 6 or 7 million people were homeless

• Reasons for homelessness

  • Drugs or alcohol

  • Disturbing household environment

  • Learning disabilities or health problems

• One woman had graduated from high school, had a year and a half of college under her belt and was a bank teller and a certified nurses aid, and was still homeless.  She had 4 children that suffered as well.

 

The United States in a Changed World 

• End of the Cold War brought international change

• The United States now faced a changed world, and questions on what its role would be in this changed world 

  • The United States had many decisions to make in little time about what to do with its foreign policy…something the US should have been used to by then.  These could possibly determine the future of the country to today and beyond. 

 

Triumph in the Cold War 

• Reagan takes a strong approach to taking down the Soviets

• Mikhail Gorbachev (the Soviet leader) and Reagan began resolving conflicts between the US and the Soviets

• Took 2500 nuclear missiles in Europe (from US and Soviets)

• Limited the number of nuclear weapons in possession of a country 

• The president of Russia, Boris Yeltsin, became friends with Vice President and eventual president George Bush.  The two then declared an end to the Cold War. 

  • The relations between the Americans and Russians were able to be all healed, and when the Berlin Wall was torn down, communism went with it, as communist regimes all over the world were going down in shambles.  Reagan and Bush did a ton of work trying to stabilize the relations, and in the end were able to come out of it ending the war almost entirely. 

 

 Steps Toward Peace in the Middle East 

• The United States had another goal of stabilizing the Middle East after the Cold War…a potentially daunting task. 

• The US among other nations invaded Iraq in Operation Desert Storm after Saddam Hussein made his intentions of unifying Islamic nations known.

• Under Bill Clinton, the United States’ efforts continued.  Clinton brought former foes Yitzhak Rabin (Israeli prime minister) and Yasir Arafat (Palestinian leader) together to make amends in the hopes of peace.
• Many treaties were being signed between enemies in order to inject peace in the violent Middle East. Despite efforts, violence continued and in turn, Rabin was assassinated. 

• The efforts of making peace across the world took a long time after the Cold War ended, and in many ways, it was unsuccessful.  Desert Storm proved to be a waste and so did many of the peace treaties and resolutions.  

 

Turbulence in Latin America 

• The United States attempted to stabilize South America after the Cold War. 

• Presidents ranging from Jimmy Carter, Reagan, and Bush, the United States aided governments and coups of governments all across South America, including places like El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, and more. 

  • Lots of bogus things and confusion highlighted this section.  Numerous times, the United States switched its side midway through a military mission and at some times, contradicted themselves when naming reasons for aiding different countries or organizations.

 

Upheaval in Africa 

• Just like the Middle East and Latin America, the US wanted to settle relationships in a very unstable Africa.

• In South Africa, Nelson Mandela, a black activist who had been imprisoned for his resistance, teamed up with the United States and set up a new biracial government where blacks could even vote.  Mandela became the president.

• More struggles in Somalia, Rwanda, and other places in Africa caused the US to use military strength to stabilize the regions. 

  • Following the Cold War, Africans and people all over the world had fears that the United States put upon themselves to fix.  In many of the cases in Africa, the United States was able to stabilize regions and set up the kind of democracies and governments that would lead to a safer world. 

 

Chapter 30 Identifications, Vocabulary, and Geography

Conservative Philosophy: This was the belief that the United States had entered an era of increased international competition that would create a scarcity of resources and that the economic boom of the 1960s and 1970s would only leave a legacy of rising inflation, falling productivity, enormous waste, and out-of-control entitlements.  In order to respond to these problems facing America, the Conservative Philosophy was to downsize government, reduce the tax burden on the citizens, and cut back on unnecessary regulations that hurt business competition. 

Milton Friedman:  A University of Chicago professor who promoted the free play of market forces and a sharp restriction of government activism in regulating the economy.

Senator Jesse Helms: A man who worked actively and aggressively towards any forms of expressions he termed pornographic, he pushed for a limited federal role.

Moral Majority: founded by Jerry Falwell, supported conservative candidates

Reverend Jerry Falwell: attracted large followings in the 1980s as a television evangelist, very similar to Father Charles E. Coughlin of the 1930s, founded the Moral Majority, used electronic means to give sermons to mass audiences

Christian Coalition: group that financially supported candidates who were solid on conservative values such as reinstating school prayer, defeating the Equal Rights Amendment, and ending legalized abortion

“Sound Bites”:  15 to 30 seconds of recording in which a politician would state their view on a topic to the people

“Spin Doctors”:  individuals who had the responsibility of putting the best possible “spin” on a negative statement by a politician

Richard Viguerie: was the New Right Mastermind on how to tap into the conservative population for political and financial ends, developed a direct-mail appeals that assisted conservative candidates around the country

Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Enterprise Institute: released books, articles, and reports that helped elect Ronald Reagan to the Presidency as well as other conservatives

Ronald Reagan: Republican, Governor of California from 1967 to 1975, President of the United States from 1980 to 1988, pushed for limited government, believed in bolstering the military might of the United States, and supported laissez-faire economic policies, enormously popular and successful, introduced “Reaganomics,” oldest President, often delegated powers to his advisors, last months of his Administration marked by corruption

Jimmy Carter: Democrat, President of the United States from 1976 to 1980, lost in his re-election bid to Ronald Reagan

Walter Mondale: Democrat, Senator from Minnesota, Democratic nominee for the Presidency in 1984, lost to Ronald Reagan

“Teflon” Presidency:  nickname of Reagan’s presidency because criticisms and disagreements never hurt his approval ratings

George H. W. Bush: Republican, Vice President of the United States from 1980 to 1988, former Director of the CIA, former Congressman, President of the United States 1988 to 1992, ran a tough, mudslinging election to beat Michael Dukakis in 1988, oversaw the Persian Gulf War, very strongly Pro-Life

Michael Dukakis: Democrat, Governor of Massachusetts, Democratic Nominee for the Presidency in 1988, lost to George H. W. Bush

Robert Dole: Republican, Senator from Kansas, Majority Leader of the Senate

Newt Gingrich:  Republican, Congressman from Georgia, Speaker of the House, outspoken proponent of the Republican agenda

“Reaganomics”:  policy instituted by the Reagan Administration that believed by reducing taxes the government could encourage business expansion leading to a larger supply of goods which would stimulate the entire economy

New Federalism: instituted by Reagan, hoped to shift responsibilities from the Federal government to the State and Local governments

Recession: a period of an economic contraction  

Bill Clinton: the 42^nd president of the United States who led the Democratic resurgence in 1992

H. Ross Perot: A billionaire businessman from Texas who made his fortune in the computer data-processing field

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): Aimed at promoting free trade between Canada, Mexico, and the United States

Freeman vs. Pitts: Supreme Court’s Freeman vs. Pitts decision in 1992 granted an Atlanta school board relief from desegregation order

Sandra Day O’Connor: First ever female Supreme Court justice

Webster vs. Reproductive Health Services: Supreme Court Case Webster vs. Reproductive Health Services, it was ruled that abortion was legal but states could impose further restrictions

Planned Parenthood vs. Casey: Supreme Court Case Planned Parenthood vs. Casey reaffirmed what was previously ruled but made it more difficult to obtain an abortion

Pequots- Indian tribe in Connecticut that built a casino, which soon turned into the highest grossing casino in the nation

Immigration Act (1965): part of Johnson’s Great Society Program; authorized more open and impartial acceptance of immigrants from all different countries, leading to a large increase in immigration 

Leonard Chapman: commissioner of the Immigration and Naturalization Service 

Mikhail Gorbachev: Leader of Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991 when he and Ronald Reagan took down the union. 

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987): Took 2500 nuclear missiles in Europe (from US and Soviets) 

The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (1991): Limited the number of nuclear weapons in possession of a country

Boris Yeltsin: Russian president at the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union

Operation Desert Storm: Mission in Iraq to take down the plots of Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein: Iraqi ruler who planned on unifying all Islamic nations

Yasir Arafat: Palestinian leader

Yitzhak Rabin: Israeli prime minister 

Nelson Mandela: South African who worked to get a government with equality in voting and representation 

Attorney General William French Smith: Lawyer and 74th Attorney General, Republican

Al Gore: Vice President under Bill Clinton and a true environmentalist

Florida: Part of the Sun Belt that felt the impact of the influx of Hispanics and Asians

California: Part of the Sun Belt that felt the impact of infulx of Hispanics and Asians

Taiwan, Samoas, Korea, Vietnam, Philippines, China, Cambodia: Countries that immigrants came from and competed for jobs with the other immigrants (Latinos and Blacks) 

New York, Miami, Houston, Brooklyn: Other large city that felt an significant impact from immigrants

Nicaragua, El Salvador, Cuba, Grenada, Panama, Haiti: Countries in which the United States invaded in order to stabilize South America.