Chapter 28: High Water and Ebb Tide of the Liberal State

By Katie McAvoy, Megan Quann, Nicole Yao, Danielle Ridarick, Brittany Schloesser, Samantha Turret

·    Paul Cowaan (idealist in the 1960’s)

o      Student who believed in social change and liberal reform

·    Like many other students of his generation, he believed the government could make a difference.  What made this revelation of hope come about?

o      Once he graduated from Harvard, he and his wife continued to be committed to civil rights

§       Peace Corps (Guayaquil, Ecuador, South America)

·      Mediators between administration and residents

·      Began to rethink the act of kindness as just another way people imposed their ideas on one another

·    Was Cowann correct in his musings that perhaps this way of “helping” was really just a new type of imperialist imposing values on others”

·    Themes of the Chapter:

o      Coping with wholesale economic transformation

o      Maintaining the hopes and promises of American life.

·    The United States was “comfortable and confident” as the 1960’s began.

 

Origins of the Welfare State

·    Modern American welfare state originated in the New Deal of FDR

·    Harry Truman’s Fair Deal then built on FDR’s New Deal

·    Dwight Eisenhower then lessened the spending.  However, he kept all of the most important initiatives of the welfare state

Truman’s Approach

·    Truman had to deal with the immediate problems before achieving his new social and economic goals

o      Demands for the return of servicemen

o      Fears of inflation

o      Consequences of labor unrest

·    Truman was always very straightforward; stating his positions with clarity and simplicity

·    Unlike many other political figures (for example, FDR), Truman simply told the people what it was he thought and the positions he took.

·    He wanted to help the middle-class and working-class Americans

·    After WWII, Truman wanted Congress to pass a 21-point program in order to produce stability and security for postwar America.

o      Full-employment legislation, higher minimum wage, greater unemployment compensation, housing assistance

·    Truman immediately wanted this new program not only to get America back on track, but also to ensure America’s stability in the long run.

·    His 21-point program was opposed politically

·    Many instead wanted to apply the theory of English economist John Maynard Keynes

·    Keynes believed in massive spending to free the economy from depression.

o      Tax cuts, spending programs

o      Liberals and Labor leaders supported this, but business groups did not, claiming the government was intervening free enterprise

·    Finally, Congress passed the proposition with many alterations

o      Created a Council of Economic Advisers to make recommendations to the president

o      The president has to report annually to Congress and America on the economic state of the United Sates

·    Truman’s 21-points are thought of as a modern New Deal for economic planning.

Truman’s Struggle with a Conservative Congress

·    Truman’s supporters dropped drastically nearing the elections of 1946

·    Remember, Truman was thinking about America’s present and future, However, America had “had enough”.

·    Republicans won majorities in both houses of Congress and gained a majority of governorships

o      Plans to reverse liberal policies of the Roosevelt years, reestablish congressional authority, and decrease power of the executive branch

o      Wanted less intervention in businesses and private lives

o      Strived for tax reduction

·    What may have caused the sudden increased support in the Republican Party?

·    In 1948, despite Truman’s disapproval, Congress reduced federal spending and taxes

·    Taft-Hartley Act (1947); passed over Truman’s veto

o      Limit the power of unions by restricting weapons they could employ

o      Union leaders and members did not support this act at all

o      When many people disapproved of this act, Truman began to regain some of his prior supporters

·    This forced workers to join the union after they had been hired.  Thus, despite the disapproval, Truman’s act really did change American in the long run.

The Fair Deal and Its Fate

·    Truman wanted to consolidate a new liberal program

o      Runs for president in 1948 as Democratic nominee (originally low popularity for him)

·    Democratic Party: Split between ideas on civil rights

o      Liberals: pressed for stronger stand on black civil rights

o      Mississippi and Alabama: pro-segregation

§       Form the States’ Rights, also know as the Dixiecrat Party: this is make up of 13 states who nominate J. Strom Thurmond for Presidential candidate

·    Progressive Party: nominates Henry A. Wallace for presidential candidate

o      Holds moderate Soviet Union position

o      Against segregation

o      Wants to nationalize railroads and industries

·    Republican Party: nominates Thomas E. Dewey

o      Stiff and egocentric, yet polls still reveal popularity among Republicans

·    Truman appeals to ordinary Americans in his campaign and speech

o      Gets the support of labor, farm, and black voters

o      Wins the electoral college 303-189

o      Democrats sweep both houses of Congress

o      This allows him to implement his liberal program

·    The “Fair Deal Program”

o      Successful at raising the minimum wage, expanding social security program, and desegregating military

·    All of these, like joining the union, had great impacts on America in the future, just as Truman had planed.

o      Ideals that fail:

§       Housing proposal: does not meet housing needs

§       Farm support program: never gets through Congress

§       No national health insurance

§       No federal aid to education

o      Truman cannot make this a complete success due to conservative legislatures

§       He holds confrontation with Congress, which thinks he spends more money on defense programs and less on projects at home

·    The Fair Deal programs that Truman implements during this time period serves as a continuation of the New Deal of FDR.  Although the Fair Deal is not successful in every single aspect, it proves that times are beginning to endorse liberal goals.

The Election of Eisenhower

·    Truman loses popularity by the time of the 1952 election and a political shift is evident

·    Democrats nominate Adlai Stevenson (Governor of Illinois)

·    Republicans nominate Dwight Eisenhower (WWII hero)

o      Focus on Communism, corruption, and ending the Korean War

o      Eisenhower good at unification and campaigning

·    Eisenhower wins office and Republicans gain Congress for 2 terms

·    Truman became less popular during his term in office as his Fair Deal failed to be successful on all terms.  The American people were looking for something new and Dwight Eisenhower seemed to have a good approach with the people, and could relate with them on their terms.  The problems that the Republican Party focuses on are the problems that the people feel need to be dealt with.

“Modern Republicanism”

·    Eisenhower wants to limit the power of the President and the executive brand and prefers a balance of the three branches

o      Wants to reduce national authority, yet still preserve social gains

o      “Conservative when it comes to money, liberal when it comes to human beings”

·    His presidency is dominated by economic concerns

·    George Humphrey: Secretary of Treasury

o      Wants to keep inflation in control, even if that means unemployment

·    Submerged Lands Act: transfers $40 billion worth of oil lands to states

·    New preference for private industries for activity in electric power field

·    Economy truly growing slower during this time frame

o      3 recessions during Eisenhower’s presidency

·    “Hidden Hand”: Eisenhower works a lot behind the scenes

o      Helps to ratify welfare state

·    1954- Congress goes to Democrats

·    Overall, Eisenhower seemed to be able to get what he wanted done.  He was one of the few Presidents that were just as popular on his way out of office as he was coming in.  His stance on having less Presidential power still seems to be evident in today’s society.

 

The High Water Mark of Liberalism

·    Democrats in office wanted to broaden the role of the government

·    Kenned wanted to manage the economy more effectively

·    Most importantly, they sought to protect the civil rights of Americans, and became close in the mid-1960s.

The Election of 1960

·    Kennedy argued for an even more involved government

·    Kennedy (Democrat) barely beat Nixon (Republican)

·    The public airing of the debates on television “turned the tides”; Kennedy’s strong leadership, charisma, and enthusiasm captured the hearts of American citizens; his idea of being a “catalyst and energizer” was appealing

·    This election marks the beginning of a new kind of presidential election; one that involves a candidate to appear like a present, not only act as one (Kennedy had a beautiful wife).

·    Dean Dusk and Robert S. McNamara are examples of the talented assistants on Kennedy’s staff

·    Kennedy surround himself with people who could also be leaders, so he would in fact only be a “catalyst”.

·    The lifestyle and energy of the Kennedy family further enforced the enamored image of the president

Recovering the Past- Television

·     Television was a work in progress starting as early as the 19^th century.

o      WWII impeded the development of television; soon after, commercial growth increased and assembly lines helped to bring thousands of televisions to the market and to homes across the nation.

·     The soar in production of television sets is an example of the economic boom that ensued the return of WWII soldiers.

·     Television started as dramas, sports programs, episodic series, etc., but soon began to involve politics, news, and public affairs.  (For example, Kenney’s assassination)

·     As seen in pictures on pages 1000-1001, JFK appears to be speaking directly to Americans, while Nixon seems tense and unconfident.

The New Frontier

·    Kennedy hoped to expand the economic system and enlarge social welfare programs in addition to supporting civil rights.

o      Kennedy’s firm and ambitious actions with regards to the economy and big businesses turned some people away and provoked a sense that Kennedy’s actions were actually hurting the economy.

·    Kennedy was unable to win congressional support on many of his propositions such as “federal aid for education, medical care for the elderly, housing subsidies, and urban renewal”

·    Notice that Kennedy’s energy and charismatic personally were able to win support of Americans during the election, but the same energy did not carry over into Congress.

·    Kennedy was able to secure funding for the exploration of space as well as to establish the Peace Corps.

·    Congress supported NASA instead of Kennedy’s propositions to better America, effectively pouring money into space as opposed to our country.  It seems Congress cared more about beating Russia in the Space Race than the issues on our own soil.

Change of Command

·    In a trip to Dallas, Texas, Kennedy was killed.  He was attempting to meld the Democratic Party together, which had been split on north-south lines.

·    This was the defining moment of a generation

·    Johnson took over.  Although he was ambivalent about Kennedy, he seized on the nation’s grief.  He was an able legislator and a very reform-minded individual.

·    After losing in the primaries to Kennedy, he decided to work as his VP, but soon discovered that it was a useless position.  Once achieving the presidency, he was willing to use the executive office aggressively to get what he wanted.

·    He was much like FDR and other reform-minded executives.

The Great Society in Action

·    Johnson’s first step was to push through all of Kennedy’s programs that couldn’t get through.

·    Ex: The Civil Rights Act of 1964.  A nice byproduct of this Kennedy-nostalgia was that it was easy for LBJ to convince people to vote for these measures because “Kennedy would’ve wanted it”.

·    Using Keynesian principles that Kennedy could never get through Congress, LBJ attempted to fund the various reform programs that Kennedy never had ample funding for.

·    Because of LBJ’s superior legislative skills, he was able to coerce Congress into getting his new budget/tax cuts passed.

·    Declaring an unconditional “war on poverty”, LBJ created the Economic Opportunity Act (creating the Office of Economic Opportunity), which also created the Job Corps, VISTA (like the Peace Corps, except domestic), and Head Start

·    The war on poverty is much like Bush’s “War on Terrorism”.

·    Also, LBJ was committed to health care and funding for schools, setting up Medicare and Medicaid.  Also, he was able to get funding for education in numbers that Kennedy could not, due to his Catholic heritage.

·    Medicare is for the elderly.  Medicaid is for people who cannot afford health insurance.

·    The Great Society Program, a name LBJ coined, also included housing reformation, where LBJ added funding for helping families get houses.  Also, the program loosened the immigration laws, allowing thousands more foreigners to land on American shores.  This increased dramatically the number of immigrants from Asia and Latin American in the Immigration Act of 1965.

·    With the passage of the National Wilderness Preservation Act of 1964, Congress set aside 9.1 million acres of wilderness and helped begin the modern environmental movement.

A Sympathetic Supreme Court

·    The “Warren Court”, a supreme court under Earl Warren, supported a very liberal agenda because Kennedy and Johnson were able to appoint four members during their terms.

·    Very rarely before has a supreme court worked so readily for the president.  Case in point: the Schecter v. Poultry case in which FDR’s NRA was declared unconstitutional.

·    Some landmark cases:

o      Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka (challenged “separate but equal”; beginning of integrating educational facilities)

o      Gideon v. Weeknight (poor defendants had the right to a lawyer)

o      Escobedo v. Illinois (a suspect had to be given access to an attorney during questioning)

o      Miranda v. Arizona (offenders had to be warned that statements extracted by the police could be used against them and that they could remain silent)

o      Baker v. Carr (changing legislative districts’ power and distribution)

The Great Society Under Attack

·    The Great Society proved illusionary after programs failed to eliminate poverty and numerous other issues.

·    Factionalism plagued the Great Society. Lyndon Johnson reconstituted the Old Democratic coalition in 1964, but clashes between the coalitions soon arose due to different interests.

·    Conservative white southerners and blue-collar white northerners were threatened by the government’s support of civil rights.

·    Local urban bosses objected to grass-rooted participation of the urban poor, which threatened their own political control.

·    Criticism of the Great Society became very prevalent from across the political spectrum. Conservatives disliked the centralization of authority along with the government’s increased role in defining the national welfare.

·    The middle-class Americans, who were generally supportive of the liberal goals, felt that the government was paying too much attention to the underprivileged and thereby neglecting their own needs.

·    Radicals attacked the Great Society as a “warmed-over” version of the New Deal.

·    The Vietnam War dealt the Great Society a fatal blow. LBJ wanted to maintain both the war and this treasured domestic reform programs, but his effort to pursue these goals simultaneously produced serious inflation.

·    As soon as inflation spirals out of control, Congress finally got involved, and discontinuing all of the Great Society programs.

·    Although the Great Society had proved to be a success for a few years after its institution, problems soon plagued the nation. Clashes soon arose between the coalitions and programs instituted during the Great Society era failed to resolve serious issues. After heavy criticism and the dramatic inflation, Congress intervened, discontinuing all Great Society Programs. As hard economic choices became increasingly necessary, many decided the country could no longer afford social reform on the scale Johnson had proposed.

 

The Decline of Liberalism

·    After eight years of Democratic rule many Americans became frustrated with the liberal agenda and the ability of the government to solve social problems.

·    The Vietnam War had polarized the country and fragmented the Democratic Party. Republicans determined to scale down the commitment of social change, capitalizing on the alienation sparked by the war.

The Election of 1968

·    In this election, Nixon faced Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey in the race for president.

·    The war in Vietnam had fractured the Democratic Party and made Johnson so unpopular that he chose not to run for reelection.

·    The turbulence in the Democratic Party worked in Nixon’s favor.

·    Nixon’s biggest threat was from Governor George C. Wallace of Alabama, a third-party candidate, who exploited social and racial tensions in his campaign.

·    Wallace appealed to northern working-class voters as well as southern whites. Nixon addressed the same constituency who made up what he called the country’s “silent majority”.

·    When the results were in, Nixon received 43 percent of the popular vote, not quite 1 percent more than Humphrey, with Wallace capturing the rest.

·    It was enough to give the Republicans a majority in the Electoral College and Nixon the presidency. Because many Americans split their tickets, the Democrats won both houses of Congress.

·    Nixon disagreed with the liberal faith in federal planning and wanted to decentralize social policy. Because Congress was under the control of the Democratic Party and their allocation of money for programs he opposed, Nixon refused to spend funds Congress had authorized.

·    The decline of liberalism played a large role in the election of 1968. During this election, Nixon’s biggest competition was Governor George C. Wallace, a third-party candidate. After the election of Nixon to office, the Democratic Party dominated Congress. This proved to be an issue due to different party perspectives. Because Congress had allocated money for programs that Nixon did not believe in, he began to refuse to spend the funds Congress had authorized.

The Republican Agenda

·    Nixon was determined “to reverse the flow of power and resources” away from the federal government to state and local governments, where he believed they belonged.

·    In response to rising inflation, Nixon reduced government spending and pressed the Federal Reserve Board to raise interest rates. Although part of the conservative plan worked, a mild recession occurred in 1969-1970 and inflation continued.

·    Nixon soon changed his policy, imposing age and price control to stop inflation, and used monetary and fiscal policies to stimulate the economy, but inflation soon began its upward course once more after his reelection.

·    The most critical factor in disrupting the economy was the Arab oil embargo.  Due to the Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia imposed an embargo on oil shipped to Israel’s ally, the United States. Because of the oil crisis, inflation rose to an all time high of 11 percent.

·    In his efforts to control “welfare cheaters” Nixon instituted the Family Assistance Plan, which guaranteed a minimum yearly stipend of $1,600 to a family of four, along with food stamps.

·    During Nixon’s presidency, there was a rise in political protests, crime rates, drug use, and permissive attitudes towards sex. Nixon then decided to use government power to silence disruption and thereby strengthen his conservative political constituency.

·    One part of Nixon’s campaign involved denouncing disruptive elements. Another part of Nixon’s effort to circumscribe the liberal approach involved attacking the communications industry.

·    The third and strongest part of Nixon’s plan was Attorney General John Mitchell’s effort to demonstrate that the administration supported the values of citizens upset by domestic upheavals.  Mitchell’s plan included reshaping the Supreme Court. Not surprisingly, the Court gradually shifted to the right.

·    During Nixon’s presidency, there were many major issues that needed to be addressed. The most important of those issues being the rising rate of inflation. Although he proposed many new policies to help resolve the issue, they all fell through in one form or another. Another major issue soon arose in the form of rising oil prices due to the Arab-Israeli war. Also, during Nixon’s presidency, society had undergone dramatic changes as increasing crime rates, drug uses, and promiscuity came into play. Nixon’s composed a three-part campaign, targeting the issues which he deemed most important.

The Watergate Affair

·    Nixon wanted to win a second term (1972) and place Republican majorities into both houses of Congress

·    Nixon surrounded himself with loyal aides who would do anything to win

·    He set himself up for success, much like Kennedy had done in his administration.

·    John Mitchell headed The Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP)

o      Launched a massive fund-raising drive (before it was necessary to report contributions)

·    The money funded by CREEP could be used to do anything, including making the opponent look bad.

·    An intelligence branch within CREEP was led by G. Gordon Liddy

o      In 1972, Liddy proposed a scheme to wiretap the phones of various Democrats and disrupt their nominating convention

o      Mitchell approved a modified version to tap phones at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate apartment complex in Washington, D.C.

·    The wiretapping took place on June 16, 1972; those involved were arrested

o      As they were arrested, there were papers that could lead to the discovery of CREEP, hindering Nixon’s reelection

·    The FBI traced the money to CREEP, but the president told the CIA to call of the FBI

·    Nixon was not involved with breaking the law with the phone taps, but he was now part of the cover-up.

·    Nixon defeated Democrat George McGovern in the election of 1972

·    Although he won the election with 61% of the popular vote, he was not able to get the Republican majorities in Congress as he wanted.

·    The judge in the Watergate affair was not satisfied with those involved pleading guilty, and much investigation was done by officials and also reporters

o      One of the convicted burglars said that the White House was involved

·    In order to save himself, Nixon turned in Haldeman and Ehrlichman, two of his closest aides

·    In May 1973, the Senate televised the public hearings

·    This is another effect of the television.  In addition, this incident was reminiscent of the McCarthy hearings.

·    John Dean turned Nixon in, saying that money had been paid to silence burglars, State Department documents had been forged, wiretaps had been used to prevent top-level leaks, and the president had installed a secret taping system in his office

·    Nixon appointed Archibald Cox as a special prosecutor in the Department of Justice, but when Cox tried to gain access to the tapes, Nixon fired him

·    On August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first American president ever to resign

·    The Watergate affair changed the way Americans viewed the government.  First, they saw an unbalance of power.  Other Americans lost complete faith in the presidency (a survey showed that trust in the presidency had declined by 50 percent in two years; this also included LBJ’s lying to American people about Vietnam).  Few people bothered to vote in succeeding elections.

Gerald Ford: Caretaker President

·    Gerald Ford took over for Nixon; he believed in traditional virtues

·    As a part of Congress, he had opposed federal aid to education, the poverty program, and mass transit

·    After such a dramatic ending to Nixon’s presidency, Washington was in turmoil.  Ford had to use his authority to restore national confidence.

·    Off to a good start, the good feeling did not last as Ford pardoned Nixon only a month after his resignation

·    Economic problems raised in 1974 (inflation from oil price increase)

·    Nixon had been too caught up in the Watergate affair to deal with the rising inflation and unemployment.

·    Ford hoped to “Whip Inflation Now”

o      Tight-money policy led to a sever recession

·    Ford passed a large tax cut along with better unemployment benefits

·    Ford believed in a limited presidency, which set him against liberals.  When he did not take an initiative, Congress stepped in and the two branches conflicted, with Ford vetoing bills and Congress overriding vetoes.

The Carter Interlude

·    Election of 1976: Gerald Ford v. Jimmy Carter

·    Carter appealed to voters who distrusted political leadership

·    Carter utilized the media, especially television

·    The television allowed Carter to make a direct electronic relationship with voters.

·    Carter won in a tight election

·    Carter was much different than the presidents before him.  Not comfortable with the political activity in Washington, he hoped to take a more restrained approach to the presidency.

·    Upon getting the Democratic nomination, Carter called to end race and sex discrimination

·    Carter was never clear with his plans, and thus critics said he had no strategy

·    As an “outsider”, not a normal politician, Carter ignored traditional political channels.

·    Economically, Carter allowed deficit spending

·    Carter never constructed an effective energy policy (40% of oil was imported)

o      Critics used MEOW to describe Carter’s program that he called the “moral equivalent of war”

·    Carter did try to move to other means of energy other than oil such as coal, possibly even sun and wind.  Nuclear power was another possibility, but costs rose and accidents (Three Mile Island) occurred.

·    Carter also began deregulation (removing governmental controls in economic life)

·    Liberals were disappointed at the decade.  They had hopes for a stronger commitment to a welfare state, but that had failed.

 

Conclusion: Political Readjustment

·    During the 1960s, liberal Democrats strived for large-scale government intervention to lessen the social and economic problems that came with the modern industrial age.

·    Once the Democrats lost presidency, the Republics started to dismantle the Great Society programs

·    Most Americans began to question the principles of liberalism as the economy weakened.

 

Vocabulary

CREEP: Committee to Re-elect the President (Nixon’s campaign in 1972)

Deregulation: removing of government control on the economy.

Dixiecrats: States Rights party (southern Democrats) in 1948; opposed Democratic ideas on moderate civil rights

Great Society: LBJ’s domestic program to eliminate poverty.

Medicaid: Johnson’s program to help those who cannot afford health care.

Medicare: Johnson’s health plan to help the elderly.

Modern Republicanism: Eisenhower plans to be conservative in dealing with money, but liberal when dealing with human beings.

New Frontier: Kennedy’s domestic program that included social justice.

Peace Corps- Kenney’s program to send Americans to Third World countries.

Taft-Hartley Act: 1947; limits the power of unions

IDs

Barry Goldwater

Daniel Moynihan

Dean Rusk

Dwight Eisenhower

Ehrlichman

Franklin Roosevelt

G. Gordon Liddy

George McGovern

George Wallace

Gerald Ford

Haldeman

Harry Truman

Henry A. Wallace

Hubert H. Humphrey

J. Strom Thurmond

Jimmy Carter

John Dean

John F. Kennedy

John Maynard Keynes

John Mitchell

Lee Harvey Oswald

Lyndon B. Johnson

Richard Nixon

Robert A. Taft

Robert S. McNamara

Spiro Agnew

Thomas E. Dewey

Geography

Arizona

Dallas, Texas

Illinois

Korea

Russia

Vietnam

Watergate apartment complex (Washington, D.C.)

 

Excellent work. 93/A.

 

However, why not make use of the technology available, and point your readers toward other resources?  Add some links, etc.

 

Also, though it probably sounds "ultra-picky"...there are two "presentation issues" your group ought to pay more attention to:

1.  punctuation - and consistency of use.  Some sentences and phrases end with "."; some just end with the last word and no punctuation. (Edit!)

2.  Font size/text choice:  you should be consistent in this as well.

(Lack of consistency is a distraction to your reader - and takes away from your effectiveness; the reader focuses on style rather than substance...)

 

Finally: though I like your commentary, you leave me wanting more.  In other words, you point to many important items - and raise important questions - but then don't really work to resolve them.  Why not take a stand - as historians, why not assess and critique?  This would add to an otherwise solid bit of work...